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Overseas Indians, officially known as Non-resident Indians (NRIs) or Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), are people of Indian birth, descent, or origin who live outside the Republic of India. Overseas Indians are various individuals or ethnic groups associated with India, usually through ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, citizenship or other affiliation and live abroad overseas. According to a Ministry of External Affairs report, there were 30,995,729 NRIs and PIOs residing outside India as of December 2018.^[1] India has one of the largest diaspora populations in the world with over 15.6 million according to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.^[6]

• 1Legal definitions
• 4Emigration from India
  • 4.1Historical
• 5PIOs today
  • 5.2Africa
  • 5.3Europe
  • 5.4North America
  • 5.7Asia
  • 5.8West Asia
  • 5.9Oceania

Legal definitions[edit]

Non-Resident Indian (NRI)[edit]

Strictly speaking, the term says non-resident refers only to the tax status of a person who, as per section 6 of the Income-tax Act of 1961, has not resided in India for a specified period for the purposes of the Income Tax Act.^[7] The rates of income tax are different for persons who are 'resident in India' and for NRIs. For the purposes of the Income Tax Act, 'residence in India' requires stay in India of at least 182 days in a financial year or 365 days spread out over four consecutive years AND at least 60 days in that year.^[8] According to the act, any Indian citizen who does not meet the criteria as a 'resident of India' is a non-resident of India and is treated as NRI for paying income tax.

Person of Indian Origin (PIO)[edit]

A Person of Indian Origin (PIO)^[9] means a foreign citizen (except a national of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, Iran, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and/or Nepal), who:

• at any time held an Indian passport

or

• either of their parents/ grandparents/ great-grandparents were born and permanently resident in India as defined in Government of India Act, 1935 and other territories that became part of India thereafter provided neither was at any time a citizen of any of the aforesaid countries (as referred above);

or

• is a spouse of a citizen of India or a PIO

Overseas Citizenship of India[edit]

After multiple efforts by leaders across the Indian political spectrum, a pseudo-citizenship scheme was established, the 'Overseas Citizenship of India', commonly referred to as the OCI card. The Constitution of India does not permit full dual citizenship. The OCI card is effectively a long-term visa, with restrictions on voting rights and government jobs. The card is available to certain PIOs, and while it affords holders residency and other rights, it does have restrictions, and is not considered to be any type of Indian citizenship from a constitutional perspective.^{[citation needed]}

Contribution and influence[edit]

Indian diaspora has contributed to the Indianisation, Sanskritization and creation of anIndianised kingdom in several parts of world beyond India proper as part of the Indosphere of Greater India, including through historical spread of Indian culture, Bollywood, spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and spread of Buddhism on Silk Road. Indian honorifics influenced the Malay, Thai, Filipino and Indonesian honorifics.

Demand for dual citizenship in India by PIO and NRIs[edit]

Coinciding with Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Australia visit in November 2014, the Indian community in Australia had launched an online campaign, appealing to him to grant dual citizenship to overseas Indians.The petition has also sought granting Indian passports to overseas citizens of Indian heritage with full political and economic rights, granting of convenient voting rights to such dual passport-holding overseas Indians as well as overseas Indians with Indian passports (NRIs), which can be exercised either at the consulate, high commission or embassy premises in their country of residence and through postal or online facilities.^[10][11]Sears ted williams outboard.

Emigration from India[edit]

Historical[edit]

Southeast Asia[edit]

A major emigration from the Indian subcontinent was to Southeast Asia. There is a possibility that the first wave of Indian migration towards Southeast Asia occurred when Emperor Ashoka invaded Kalinga and following Samudragupta's expedition towards the South.^[12] This was followed by early interaction of Indian traders with South Asians and, after the mid-first millennium CE, by the emigration of members of the Brahmin social caste. This resulted in the establishment of the so-called Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The Cholas, who were known for their naval power, conquered Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The influence of Indian culture is still strongly felt in Southeast Asia with the royal Brahmins of Thailand (Rajkru), for example.^{[citation needed]}

Another early diaspora, of which little is known was a reported Indian 'Shendu' community that was recorded when Yunnan was annexed by the Han Dynasty in the 1st century by the Chinese authorities.^[13]

Central Asia[edit]

The modern Indian merchant diaspora in Central Asia and Arabia emerged in the mid-16th century and remained active for over four centuries. Astrakhan at the mouth of the Volga was the first place in the Tsardom of Russia where an Indian merchant colony was established as early as the 1610s. Russian chroniclers reported the presence of Hindu traders in Moscow and St Petersburg in the 18th century.^[14]

Multani people from Multan, Shikarpur, and Mawar of both Hindu and Muslim background acted as bankers and merchants in Safavid Persia. Hindu merchants in Hamadan were massacred by Ottomans as stated by an Armenian, with the Indian merchant community plummeting due to the Ottoman and Afghan wars in Iran (1722–27).^[21] In Kerman, traders of Hindu background had a caravanserai.^[22] Traders of Indian background were mentioned by Jean Chardin, Jean de Thévenot, Adam Olearius and F. A. Kotov in the Safavid dynasty in Persia where they lived along with Jews and Armenians. Traders from India of Sikh and Hindu background lived in the Qajar and Zand dynasties in Persia after a clampdown by Nader Shah and the Afghan Ghilzar wars in Iran.^[23]

Sarmarqandi and Bukharan traders bought Indian indigo from merchants of Hindu origin in Kandahar in 1783 according to George Forester. The tallest houses were owned by Hindus according to Elphinstone in 1815. Lumsden recorded 350 stores owned by Hindus in Kandahar. Finance, precious metals, and textiles were all dealt with by Sikhs and Hindus in Kandahar.^[24]

A Hindu worked for Timur Shah Durrani in Afghanistan. Peshawar Hindus were in Kabul by 1783. Usury was the main occupation of Hindus in Kabul. Armenians and Hindus lived in Kabul according to an 1876 survey.^[25] Jews and Hindus lived in Herat in the 1800s.^[26] Sindhi Shikarpur Hindus, Jews, and Arabs lived in Balkh in 1886.^[27] Sindhi and Punjabi were the languages used by Indians in Afghanistan. Some Afghan cities including Kabul have places of worship for Hindus and Sikhs.^[28] Local citizenship has been obtained in Afghanistan by Hindu and Sikh traders.^[29]

Peshawari and Shikarpuri Indian traders were involved in Central Asia. The Shikarpuri invested in grain in the Bukharan Emirate as well as Ferghana cotton/. They also engaged in legal money lending in Bukhara, which they could not legally do in Russian Turkestan.^[30] Jews, Hindus, Baluch, Persians, and Arabs lived in Samargand, and Hindus and Bahais live in Baluchistan and Khorasan in Iran.^[31]

The usurers and merchants of Hindu background from British India in Xinjiang were guaranteed by the British Consul-General.^[32][33] Russian refugees, missionaries, and British-Indian merchants and usurers of Hindu background were potential targets of gangs of Kashgaris so the Consulate-General of Britain was a potential shelter.^[34][35]The killings of two Hindus at the hands of Uighurs took place in the Shamba Bazaar^[36] in a most brutal fashion.^[37][38][39] The plundering of the valuables of slaughtered British Indian Hindus happened in Posgam on March 25, 1933, and on the previous day in Karghalik at the hands of Uighurs.^[40] Killings of Hindus took place in Khotan at the hands of the Bughra Amirs.^[41] Antagonism against both the British and Hindus ran high among the Muslim Turki Uyghur rebels in Xinjiang's southern area. Muslims plundered the possessions in Karghalik of Rai Sahib Dip Chand, who was the aksakal of Britain, and his fellow Hindus in March 24, 1933, and in Keryia they slaughtered British Indian Hindus.^[42] Sind's Shikarpur district was the origin of the Hindu diaspora there. The slaughter of the Hindus from British India was called the 'Karghalik Outrage'. The Muslims had killed nine of them.^[43] The forced removal of the Swedes was accompanied by the slaughter of the Hindus in Khotan by the Islamic Turkic rebels.^[44] The Emirs of Khotan slaughtered the Hindus as they forced the Swedes out and declared sharia in Khotan in March 16, 1933.^[45]

Arabian peninsula[edit]

Modern times[edit]

During the mid-19th century until the end of the World War I, much of the migration that occurred was of pioneering Girmitya indentured workers — mostly Bhojpuri and Awadhi-speaking people from the Bhojpur district of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar to other British colonies under the Indian indenture system. The major destinations were Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, other parts of the Caribbean (e.g. Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Belize, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia), Fiji, Réunion, Seychelles, Malay Peninsula (e.g. Malaysia and Singapore), East Africa (e.g. Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda) and South Africa.^{[citation needed]}

Gujarati and Sindhi merchants and traders settled in the Arabian Peninsula, Aden, Oman, Bahrain, Dubai, South Africa and East African countries, most of which were ruled by the British. The Indian Rupee was the legal currency in many countries of Arabian peninsula. Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Baloch and Kashmiri Camel drivers were brought to Australia.^[46][47]

After independence[edit]

Unlike internal migration, senior government leaders have historically not vocalized opinions on international emigration. As a result, it remains a political issue only in states with major emigrant populations, such as Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and to a lesser degree Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Goa. However, the phenomenon continues to be a major force in India's economic (Foreign direct investment), social and political relations with nations having significant Indian populace.

PIOs today[edit]

Overseas Indians' Day[edit]

Since 2003, the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Overseas Indians' Day) sponsored by Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, is celebrated in India on 9 January each year, to 'mark the contributions of the Overseas Indian community in the development of India'. The day commemorates the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in India from South Africa, and during a three-day convention held around the day, a forum for issues concerning the Indian diaspora is held and the annual Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards are bestowed.^[48] As of January 2006,^[49] the Indian government has introduced the 'Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI)' scheme to allow a limited form of dual citizenship to Indians, NRIs, and PIOs for the first time since independence in 1947. The PIO Card scheme is expected to be phased out in coming years in favour of the OCI programme.

Africa[edit]

South East Africa[edit]

Before the larger wave of migration during the British colonial era, a significant group of South Asians, especially from the west coast (Sindh, Surat, Konkan and Malabar) travelled regularly to South East Africa, especially Zanzibar. It is believed that they travelled in Arab dhows, Maratha Navy ships (under Kanhoji Angre), and possibly Chinese junks and Portuguese vessels. Some of these people settled in South-East Africa and later spread to places like present day Uganda, and Mozambique. Later they mingled with the much larger wave of South Asians who came with the British.

Indian migration to the modern countries of Kenya, Uganda, Mauritius, South Africa, and Tanzania began nearly a century ago when these parts of the continent were under British and French colonial rule. Most of these migrants were of Gujarati or Punjabi origin. There are almost three million Indians living in South-East Africa. Indian-led businesses were (or are) the backbone of the economies of these countries. These ranged in the past from small rural grocery stores to sugar mills. In addition, Indian professionals, such as doctors, teachers, engineers, also played an important part in the development of these countries.

Madagascar[edit]

Indians in Madagascar are descended mostly from traders who arrived in 19th century looking for better opportunities. The majority of them came from the Indian west coast state of Gujarat and were known as Karana (Muslim) and Bania (Hindu). The majority speak Gujarati, though some other Indian languages are spoken. Nowadays the younger generations speak at least three languages including French or English, Gujarati and Malagasy.

Mauritius[edit]

Outside of India, Mauritius is the only country where people of Indian origin form the vast majority (not including Guyana, Trinidad & Tobago where Afro-Caribbeans and Indo-Caribbeans have equal populations, or Fiji where the Indo-Fijians once formed the majority but has declined due to large-scale emigration). The people are known as Indo-Mauritians, and form about 65.8% of the population. The majority of them are Hindu (73.7%) and a significant group are Muslims (26.3%). There are also some Bahá'ís and Sikhs, but the Bahá'í and Sikh populations are relatively small. The mother tongue of Indo-Mauritians is Creole, as well as French and English in general fields, however various Indian languages are still spoken, especially Bhojpuri, Tamil, Hindi, Marathi, Odia, Telugu, and Urdu are used in religious activities.

Mauritius hosts the Aapravasi Ghat, the only site of UNESCO in the world, to pay homage to the memory of indenture.

Mauritius is the only Hindu majority (48.5%) country of Africa according to the 2011 census.

The Indian Festivals of Maha Shivaratri, Diwali, Thaipusam, Ponggal, Ganesh Chaturthi and Ugadi are all National Holidays as well as the Annual Commemoration of the Arrival of Indian Indentured Labourers in Mauritius.

Réunion[edit]

Indians make up a quarter of Réunion's population. Most originally came as indentured workers from Tamil Nadu.^{[citation needed]}

South Africa[edit]

Most Asians in South Africa are descended from indentured Indian labourers who were brought by the British from India in the 19th century, mostly to work on the sugar caneplantations of what is now the province of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The majority are descendents of South Indian communities such as the Tamil and Telugu speaking communities while a minority are descended from Indian traders who migrated to South Africa at around the same time, many from Gujarat. The city of Durban has the highest number of Asians in sub-Saharan Africa, and the Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi worked as a lawyer in the city in the early 1900s. South Africa has the highest number of people of Indian descent outside of India in the world, i.e. born in South Africa and not migrant. Most of them are fourth or fifth generation descendants. Most Indian South Africans do not speak the Indian languages that were 'lost' over the generations, although they do enjoy watching Indian movies and listening to Indian music.

Europe[edit]

United Kingdom[edit]

The Indian emigrant community in the United Kingdom is now in its third generation. Indians in the UK are the largest community outside of Asia proportionally, and the second largest in terms of population, only surpassed by the United States, and closely followed by Canada. The first wave of Indians in the United Kingdom worked as manual labourers and were not respected within society. However, this has changed considerably. On the whole, third and fourth generation immigrants are proving to be very successful, especially in the fields of law, business and medicine.^{[citation needed]}

Indian culture has been constantly referenced within the wider British culture, at first as an 'exotic' influence in films like My Beautiful Laundrette, but now increasingly as a familiar feature in films like Bend It Like Beckham.

The United Kingdom Census 2011 recorded 1,451,862 people of Indian ethnicity resident in the UK (not including those who categorised themselves as of mixed ethnicity).^[50] The main ethnic groups are Tamils, Marwaris, Panjabis, Gujaratis, Kannadigas, Bengalis and Anglo-Indians.^{[citation needed]} Hindus comprise 45% of the British Indian population, Sikhs 22%, Muslims 18%, Christians nearly 5%, with the remainder made up of Jains (15,000), Parsis (Zoroastrians), and Buddhists.^{[citation needed]}

Most Indians in the United Kingdom have settled in London, the Midlands, the North West, Yorkshire and the South East. Their presence in Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and other regions is not as large. The first generation of immigrants were to be found in the east-end of London, which was traditionally the poorest area of London. However, due to gentrification, this is no longer the case.

There are 2,360,000 people currently speaking Indian languages in the United Kingdom.^[51]Punjabi is now the second most widely spoken language in the United Kingdom,^[52] and the most frequently spoken language among school pupils who do not have English as a first language.^[53]

Netherlands and Suriname[edit]

There are around 120,000 people of Indian origin in the Netherlands, 90% of whom migrated from the former Dutch colony of Suriname, where their forefathers were brought as workers to farm and tend to crops in the former Dutch colonies.^{[citation needed]}

Indo-Surinamese are nationals of Suriname of Indian or other South Asian ancestry. After the Dutch government signed a treaty with the United Kingdom on the recruitment of contract workers, Indians began migrating to Suriname in 1873 from what was then British India as indentured labourers, many from the modern-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and the surrounding regions. Just before and just after the independence of Suriname on 25 November 1975 many Indo-Surinamese emigrated to the Netherlands.^{[citation needed]}

During the heyday of the British Raj/Empire, many people from India were sent to other British colonies for work. In the Dutch colony of Suriname, the Dutch were allowed by the British Raj to recruit labourers in certain parts of the North-Indian United Provinces. Today, Europe's largest Hindu temple is currently being built in The Hague.^[54]

North America[edit]

United States of America[edit]

The United States has the largest Indian population in the world outside Asia. Indian immigration to North America started as early as the 1890s. Emigration to the US also started in the late 19th and early 20th century, when Sikhs arriving in Vancouver found that the fact that they were subjects of the British Empire did not mean anything in Canada itself, and they were blatantly discriminated against.^{[57][clarification needed]}Some of these pioneers entered the US or landed in Seattle and San Francisco as the ships that carried them from Asia often stopped at these ports. Most of these immigrants were Hindus from the Punjab region.

Asian women were restricted from immigrating, because the US government passed laws in 1917, at the behest of California and other states in the west, which had experienced a large influx of Chinese, Japanese, and Indian immigrants during and after the gold rush. As a result, many of the South Asian men in California married Mexican women. A fair number of these families settled in the Central Valley in California as farmers, and continue to this day. These early immigrants were denied voting rights, family re-unification and citizenship. In 1923 the Supreme Court of the United States, in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, ruled that people from India (at the time, British India, e.g. South Asians) were ineligible for citizenship. Bhagat Singh Thind was a Sikh from India who settled in Oregon; he had applied earlier for citizenship and was rejected there.^[58] Thind became a citizen a few years later in New York.

After World War II, US immigration policy changed, after almost a half century, to allow family re-unification for people of non-white origin. In addition, Asians were allowed to become citizens and to vote. A large number of the men who arrived before the 1940s were finally able to bring their families to the US; most of them in this earlier era settled in California and other west coast states.^{[citation needed]}

Another wave of Indian immigrants entered the US after independence of India. A large proportion of them were Hindus joining their family members under the new more (though not completely) colour-blind immigration laws, then Malayali immigrants from Middle East, Kerala, etc. and professionals or students that came from all over India. The Cold War created a need for engineers in the defence and aerospace industries, some of whom came from India. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, large numbers of Gujarati, Telugu, and Tamil people had settled in the US. The most recent and probably the largest wave of immigration to date occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s during the internet boom. As a result, Indians in the US are now one of the largest among the groups of immigrants with an estimated population of about 3.2 million, or ~1.0% of the US population according to American Community Survey of 2010 data.^[59] The US Census Bureau uses the term Asian Indian to avoid confusion with the indigenous peoples of the Americas commonly referred to as American Indians.

In contrast to the earliest groups of Indians who entered the US workforce as taxi drivers, labourers, farmers or small business owners, the later arrivals often came as professionals or completed graduate study in the US and moved into the professions. They have become very successful financially thanks to the hi-tech industry, and are thus probably the most well-off community of immigrants. They are well represented in all walks of life, but particularly so in academia, information technology and medicine.^[60] There were over 4,000 PIO professors and 84,000 Indian-born students in American universities in 2007-08. The American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin has a membership of 35,000. In 2000, Fortune magazine estimated the wealth generated by Indian Silicon Valley entrepreneurs at around $250 billion.^{[citation needed]}

The New York City Metropolitan Area, including Manhattan, Queens, and Nassau County in New York State, and most of New Jersey, is home to by far the largest Indian population in the United States,^[55] estimated at 679,173 as of 2014.^[56] Though the Indian diaspora in the US is largely concentrated in metropolitan areas surrounding cities such as New York City, Washington D.C., Boston, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, and San Francisco — almost every metropolitan area in the US has a community of Indians.

Canada[edit]

According to Statistics Canada, in 2016 there were 1,541,955 people who classified themselves as being of Indian origin, including terms of 'East Indian', South Asian or Indo-Canadian.^[62] Unlike in India however, representation of various minority religious groups is much higher amongst the Indo-Canadian population. For instance in India, Sikhs comprise 2% and Christians 2.2% of the population of India, Hindus 80% and Muslims 14%. In 2011, Sikhs represented 35%, Hindus represented 28%, Muslims 17%, Christians 16% of the total people of Indian origin in Canada.^[63]

The first known Indian settlers in Canada were Indian Army soldiers who had passed through Canada in 1897 on their way home from attending Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebration in London, England. Some are believed to have remained in British Columbia and others returned there later. A Hindu-Canadian community has existed in Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada, for over 100 years. Hindu-Punjabi Indians were attracted to the possibilities for farming and forestry. They were mainly male Sikhs who were seeking work opportunities. Indo-Caribbeans, descendants of the Indian indentured workers who had gone to the Caribbean since 1838, made an early appearance in Canada with the arrival of the Trinidadian medical student Kenneth Mahabir and the Demerara (now Guyana) clerk M N Santoo, both in 1908.^{[citation needed]}

The first Indian immigrants in British Columbia allegedly faced widespread racism from the local white Canadians. Race riots targeted these immigrants, as well as new Chinese immigrants. Most decided to return to India, while a few stayed behind. The Canadian government prevented these men from bringing their wives and children until 1919, another reason why many of them chose to leave. Quotas were established to prevent many Indians from moving to Canada in the early 20th century. These quotas allowed fewer than 100 people from India a year until 1957, when the number was increased to 300. In 1967, all quotas were scrapped. Immigration was then based on a point system, thus allowing many more Indians to enter. Since this open-door policy was adopted, Indians continue to come in large numbers, and roughly 25,000-30,000 arrive each year, which now makes Indians the second highest group immigrating to Canada each year, after the Chinese.^{[citation needed]}

Most Indians choose to immigrate to larger urban centres like Toronto, and Vancouver, where more than 70% live. Smaller communities are also growing in Calgary, Edmonton, and Montreal. A place called Little India exists in Vancouver and a section of Gerrard Street in Toronto as well. Indians in Vancouver live mainly in the suburb of Surrey, or nearby Abbotsford but are also found in other parts of Vancouver. The vast majority of Vancouver Indians are of Sikh origin and have taken significant roles in politics and other professions, with several Supreme Courtjustices, three attorneys general and one provincial premier hailing from the community. Both Gurmant Grewal and his wife Nina Grewal were the first married couple in Canada to be concurrently elected as Member of Parliament in 2004. The most read newspaper in the Indian community is The Asian Star and The Punjabi Star based in Vancouver started by an immigrant from Mumbai-Shamir Doshi.^{[citation needed]}

The Greater Toronto Area contains the second largest population of Indian descent in North America, enumerating 572,250 residents of Indian origin as of 2011, surpassed only by the 592,888 estimate by the 2011 American Community Survey^[64][65] (and 659,784 in 2013^[66]) for the New York City Combined Statistical Area. Note, however, that the Toronto count (but not the New York count) includes individuals of West Indian/Indo-Caribbean descent. Compared to the Vancouver area, Toronto's Indian community is much more linguistically and religiously diverse with large communities of Gujaratis, Malayalis, and Tamils, as well as more Indians who are Hindu, Sikh and Muslim than Vancouver. From Toronto, Canadian carrier Air Canada operates non-stop flights to Delhi and Mumbai.^[67]

Caribbean[edit]

From 1838 to 1917, over half a million Indians from the former British Raj or British India, were brought to the British West Indies as indentured servants to address the demand for labour following the abolition of slavery. The first two ships arrived in British Guiana (now Guyana) on 5 May 1838.

The majority of the Indians living in the English-speaking Caribbean migrated from eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar, while those brought to Guadeloupe and Martinique were mostly from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. A minority emigrated from other parts of South Asia, including present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Other Indo-Caribbean people descend from later migrants, including Indian doctors, Gujarati businessmen and migrants from Kenya and Uganda. A vague community of modern-day immigrants from India is to be found on Saint-Martin or Sint Maarten and other islands with duty-free commercial capabilities, where they are active in business.

Indo-Caribbeans are the largest ethnic group in Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. They are the second largest group in Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and other countries. There are small populations of them in Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, French Guiana, Grenada, Panama, Guatemala, St Lucia, Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and the Netherlands Antilles.

The indentured Indians and their descendants have actively contributed to the evolution of their adopted lands in spite of many difficulties. Jamaica has always celebrated the arrival of the East Indians in Old Harbour Bay on 13 May. Trinidad and Tobago celebrates the arrival of East Indians on 30 May. In 2003, Martinique celebrated the 150th anniversary of Indian arrival. Guadeloupe did the same in 2004. These celebrations were not the fact of just the Indian minority but the official recognition by the French and local authorities of their integration and their wide-scale contribution in various fields from agriculture to education and politics, and to the diversification of the Creole culture. Thus the noted participation of the whole multi-ethnic population of the two islands in these events.^[68]

South America[edit]

The migrations of Indians began when the British had Guyana as a colony, primarily in the same time period Indians started migrating to other British colonies. Later on the Dutch colonists had a trade off with the 'British Raj' to import Indians into one of their biggest colonies, Suriname. The French has also imported Indians, although with small numbers. The latest pre-world war migration has taken place since 1873 in Suriname and was only stopped due to the first world war 1914.^{[citation needed]}

Asia[edit]

Nepal[edit]

In 2006, the newly formed Nepal parliament passed the controversial citizenship act Nepal citizenship law that allowed nearly two million Indians especially those living in the Madhesh province of Nepal to acquire Nepalese citizenship and Nepalese identity via naturalisation.^[69][70] The total number of Indian citizens temporarily living and working in Nepal is estimated to be somewhere between two and three million.^[71] Nepal is also the seventh largest source of remittance to India, which amounted to nearly $3.5 billion in 2013/2014.^[72][73]

Indonesia[edit]

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The official figures, it is estimated that there are around 125,000 Indians living in Indonesia and 25,000 PIOs/NRIs living in Indonesia of which the Indian expatriate community registered with the embassy and consulate in Medan numbers around 5,000-7,000 people. Most are from Tamil descendants. There are other sources stated that there are more than 400,000 Indians in Indonesia.

Indians have been living in Indonesia for centuries, from the time of the Srivijaya and Majapahit Empire both of which were Hindu and heavily influenced by the subcontinent. Indians were later brought to Indonesia by the Dutch in the 19th century as indentured labourers to work on plantations located around Medan in Sumatra. While the majority of these came from South India, a significant number also came from the north of India. The Medan Indians included Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. They have now been in Indonesia for over four generations and hold Indonesian passports. While local statistics continue to suggest that there are some 40,000 PIOs in Sumatra, the vast majority are now completely assimilated into Indonesian society, though some elements of the Tamil, Punjabi and Odia communities still maintain their cultural traditions.

The Indian diaspora also includes several thousand Sindhi families who constitute the second wave of Indian immigrants who made Indonesia their home in the first half of the 20th century. The Sindhi community is mainly engaged in trading and commerce.

Among these communities, Tamils and to a lesser extent Sikhs were primarily engaged in agriculture while Sindhis and Punjabis mainly established themselves in textile trade and sports businesses.

The inflow of major Indian investments in Indonesia starting in the late 1970s drew a fresh wave of Indian investors and managers to this country. This group of entrepreneurs and business professionals has further expanded over the past two decades and now includes engineers, consultants, chartered accountants, bankers and other professionals.

The Indian community is very well regarded in Indonesia, is generally prosperous, and includes individuals holding senior positions in local and multinational companies.

Due to economic factors, most traders and businessmen among PIOs have over past decades moved to Jakarta from outlying areas such as Medan and Surabaya. Almost half the Indian Community in Indonesia is now Jakarta-based; it is estimated that the population of Jakarta's Indian community is about 19,000.^[74] There are six main social or professional associations in Jakarta's Indian PIO/NRI community. Gandhi Seva Loka (formerly known as Bombay Merchants Association) is a charitable institution run by the Sindhi community and is engaged mainly in educational and social activities. The India Club is a social organisation of PIO/NRI professionals. An Indian Women's Association brings together PIO/NRI spouses and undertakes charitable activities. There is a Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee in Jakarta and Sindhis as well, Sikhs are associated with Gurudwara activities. The Economic Association of Indonesia and India (ECAII) brings together leading entrepreneurs from the Indian community with the objective of promoting bilateral economic relations, but it has been largely inactive. Finally, there is the Indonesian Chapter of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI).

Japan[edit]

Indians in Japan consist of migrants from India to Japan and their descendants. As of December 2008, there were 22,335 Indian nationals living in Japan.^[75] Roughly 60% consist of expatriate IT professionals and their families.^[76]

Malaysia[edit]

Malaysia has one of the world's largest overseas Indian and overseas Chinese populations. Most Indians migrated to Malaysia as plantation labourers under British rule. They are a significant minority ethnic group, making up 8% or 2,410,000 as 2017 of the Malaysian population. 85% of these people are Tamil-speaking. They have retained their languages and religion — 88% of ethnic Indians in Malaysia identify as Hindus. A minority number of the population are Sikhs and Muslims.

There is also a small community of Indian origin, the Chitty, who are the descendants of Tamil traders who had emigrated before 1500 CE, and Chinese and Malay locals. Considering themselves Tamil, speaking Malay, and practicing Hinduism, the Chittys number about 200,000 today.

Philippines[edit]

Currently, there are over 150,000 people of Indian origin residing in Philippines.^[77] By law, Indian Filipinos are defined as Philippine citizens of Indian descent.

India and the Philippines have historic cultural and economic ties going back over 3,000 years. Iron Age finds in the Philippines point to the existence of trade between Tamil Nadu in South India and what are today the Philippine Islands during the ninth and tenth centuries BCE.^[78] The influence of Indian culture on Filipino cultures intensified from the 2nd through the late 14th centuries CE, impacting various fields such as language, politics, and religion.^[79]

During the Seven Years' War, Indians from Chennai, and Tamil Nadu were part of the British expedition against Spanish Manila, taking the city from the Spanish East Indies government and occupying the surrounding areas until Caintâ and Morong (today in Rizal province) between 1762 and 1763. Following the end war's end, a number of Indian soldiers mutinied, settled, and married local Tagalog women. These Sepoy Indians still have descendants in the town today.^[80][81]

Singapore[edit]

Indian Singaporeans — defined as persons of South Asian paternal ancestry — form 10% of the country's citizens and permanent residents, making them Singapore's third largest ethnic group. Among cities, Singapore has one of the largest overseas Indian populations.

Although contact with ancient India left a deep cultural impact on Singapore's indigenous Malay society, the mass migration of ethnic Indians to the island only began with the founding of modern Singapore by the British in 1819. Initially, the Indian population was transient, mainly comprising young men who came as workers, soldiers and convicts. By the mid-20th century, a settled community had emerged, with a more balanced gender ratio and a better spread of age groups. Tamil is one among the four official languages of Singapore alongside English, Chinese and Malay.

Singapore's Indian population is notable for its class stratification, with disproportionately large elite and lower income groups. This long-standing problem has grown more visible since the 1990s with an influx of both well-educated and unskilled migrants from India, and as part of growing income inequality in Singapore. Indians earn higher incomes than Malays, the other major minority group. Indians are also significantly more likely to hold university degrees than these groups. However, the mainly locally born Indian students in public primary and secondary schools under-perform the national average at major examinations.

Singapore Indians are linguistically and religiously diverse, with South Indians and nominal Hindus forming majorities. Indian culture has endured and evolved over almost 200 years. By the mid to late 20th century, it had become somewhat distinct from contemporary South Asian cultures, even as Indian elements became diffused within a broader Singaporean culture. Since the 1990s, new Indian immigrants have increased the size and complexity of the local Indian population. Together with modern communications like cable television and the Internet, this has connected Singapore with an emerging global Indian culture.

Prominent Indian individuals have long made a mark in Singapore as leaders of various fields in national life. Indians are also collectively well-represented, and sometimes over-represented, in areas such as politics, education, diplomacy and the law.

There is also a small community of Indian origin, the Chitty, who are the descendants of Tamil traders who had emigrated before 1500 CE, and Chinese and Malay locals. Considering themselves Tamil, speaking Tamil, and practice Hinduism, the Chittys number about 2,000 today.

West Asia[edit]

Persian Gulf[edit]

Indians command a dominant majority of the population Persian Gulf countries. After the 1970s oil boom in the Middle East, numerous Indians from Kerala emigrated, taking advantage of close historical ties with the 'Gulf' as well as the lack of ample skilled labour from nearby Africa and the Middle East. Major urban centers such as Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Doha and Manama were experiencing a development boom and thousands of Indians labored in construction industries.

This work was done on a contractual basis rather than permanently, and working age men continued to return home every few years. This has remained the dominant pattern as the countries in the Persian Gulf, especially United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait have a common policy of not naturalising non-Arabs, even if they are born there.

The Persian Gulf region has provided incomes many times over for the same type of job in India and has geographical proximity to India, and these incomes are free of taxation.^{[citation needed]} The NRIs make up a good proportion of the working class in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). NRI population in these GCC countries is estimated to be around 20 million, of which a quarter is resident in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).^[82] In 2005, about 75% of the population in the UAE was of Indian descent. The majority originate from Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka, and Goa. Similarly, Indians are the single largest nationality in Qatar, representing around 85% of the total population as of 2014.^[83] They also form majorities in Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman.

Since the early-2000s, significant number of Indians have reached the region, taking up high skill jobs in business and industry. Major Indian corporations maintain solid regional presence there while some are headquartered there.

There is a huge population of NRIs in West Asia, most coming from Kerala and Hyderabad. They work as engineers, doctors, lawyers, labourers and in clerical jobs.^{[citation needed]} Unlike in Europe and America, most of the countries in West Asia do not grant citizenship or permanent residency to these Indians, however long they might live there. They have a minority in Saudi Arabia. The NRI population tends to save and remit considerable amounts to their dependents in India. It is estimated such remittances may be over US$10 billion per annum (including remittances by formal and informal channels in 2007–2008). Since these people travel to their homes often twice or thrice a year, they are very close to the Indian culture. There are TV soaps aimed at them, especially Tiarts for Goans living in UAE. There are shows that happen quite often through community groups in the UAE. Many NRIs live for a couple of months a year in India, often during the holiday periods. They often continue their banking relationships and telecom relationships in India.

Israel[edit]

The Bene Israel (Hebrew: בני ישראל‎, 'Sons of Israel') are a group of Jews who migrated in the 19th century from villages in the Konkan area to nearby Indian cities, primarily Mumbai, but also to Pune, and Ahmedabad. In the second half of the 20th century, most of them emigrated to Israel, where they now number about 60,000. The native language of the Bene Israel is Judæo-Marathi, a form of Marathi.

Another prominent community that migrated to Israel after its creation were the Jews of Cochin, in Kerala (Cochin Jews) - a community with a very long history. They are known to have been granted protection by the king of the Princely State of Cochin. The earliest Jews in this region, as per local tradition, date to as early as 379 CE. The community was a mix of native Jews (called 'Black Jews'), and European Jews (called 'White Jews') who had emigrated to Cochin after the successive European conquests of Cochin. The Jewish community of Cochin spoke a variant of Malayalam, called Judeo-Malayalam. The community, after the creation of Israel, saw a mass exodus from Cochin, and is presently facing extinction.

Still another group of Indians to arrive in Israel belong to the Bnei Menashe ('Children of Menasseh', Hebrew בני מנשה) a group of more than 9,000 people from India's North-Eastern border states of Manipur and Mizoram, who claim descent from one of the Lost Tribes of Israel, and of whom about 1,700 now live in Israel (some of them in Israeli settlements on the West Bank). Linguistically, Bnei Menashe are Tibeto-Burmans and belong to the Mizo, Kuki and Chin peoples (the terms are virtually interchangeable).^[84] The move to convert them to Judaism and bring them to Israel is politically controversial in both India and Israel.^[85]

Oceania[edit]

Australia[edit]

At the 2016 Australian census, 619,164 people stated that they had Indian ancestry, of which 455,389 were born in India.^[86]Before roads and road transport were developed, many Indians had come to Australia to run camel trains. They would transport goods and mail via camels in the desert. Some of the earliest Punjabi arrivals in Australia included Kareem Bux, who came as a hawker to Bendigo in 1893, Sardar Beer Singh Johal, who came in 1895 and Sardar Narain Singh Heyer, who arrived in 1898. Many Punjabis took part in the rush for gold on the Victorian fields.

Indians also entered Australia in the first half of the 20th century when both Australia and India were still British colonies. Indian Sikhs came to work on the banana plantations in Southern Queensland. Today a large number of them live in the town of Woolgoolga (a town lying roughly halfway between Sydney and Brisbane). Some of these Indians, the descendants of Sikh plantation workers, now own banana farms in the area. There are two Sikh temples in Woolgoolga, one of which has a museum dedicated to Sikhism. A large number of Britons and Anglo-Indians born in India migrated to Australia after 1947. These British citizens decided to settle in Australia in large numbers but are still counted as Indian Nationals in the census. The third wave of Indians entered the country in the 1980s. After the policy was abolished many Indian teachers and doctors settled in Australia. Another big influx began with the information technology (IT) revolution. Large numbers of Indian IT professionals arrived in Australia from 1976 onwards. After successive military coups in Fiji of 1987 and 2000, a significant number of Fijian-Indians migrated to Australia; as such there is a large Fijian-Indian population in Australia. Fijian-Indians have significantly changed the character of the Indian community in Australia. While most earlier Indian migration was by educated professionals, the Fijian-Indian community was also largely by professionals but also brought many small business owners and entrepreneurs.

The current wave of Indian migration is that of engineers, toolmakers, Gujarati business families from East Africa and relatives of settled Indians. Starved of government funding, Australian education institutes are recruiting full fee paying overseas students. Many universities have permanent representatives stationed in India and other Asian countries. Their efforts have been rewarded with a new influx of Indian students entering Australia. The total number of student visas granted to Indian students for 2006-2007 was 34,136;^[87] a significant rise from 2002-2003, when 7,603 student visas were granted to Indian students.^[88]According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, 87% of Indians residing in Australia are under the age of 50, and over 83% are proficient in English.

New Zealand[edit]

Indians began to arrive in New Zealand in the late eighteenth century, mostly as crews on British ships. A small number deserted; the earliest known Indian resident of New Zealand was living with a Māori wife in the Bay of Islands in 1815.^{[citation needed]} Numbers slowly increased through the 19th and 20th centuries, despite a law change in 1899 that was designed to keep out people who were not of 'British birth and parentage'.^{[citation needed]} As in many other countries, Indians in New Zealand dispersed throughout the country and had a high rate of small business ownership, particularly fruit and vegetable shops and convenience stores. At this stage most Indian New Zealanders originated from Gujarat. Changes in immigration policy in the 1980s allowed many more Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis into the country. Notable Indian New Zealanders include former Dunedin mayor Sukhi Turner, cricketers Dipak Patel and Jeetan Patel, singer Aaradhna, and former Governor GeneralAnand Satyanand.

Fiji[edit]

Indo-Fijians are Fijians whose ancestors came mainly from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, while a small minority hailed from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Later on, a small population of Gujaratis and Punjabis emigrated to Fiji. They number 3,13,798 (37.6%) (2007 census) out of a total of 8,27,900 people living in Fiji.^[89] They are mostly descended from indentured labourers, girmitiyas or girmit, brought to the islands by Fiji's British colonial rulers between 1879 and 1916 to work on Fiji's sugar cane plantations. Music has featured prominently in Indo-Fijian culture, with a distinctive genre emerging in the first decades of the 20th century that some claim influenced early jazz musicians. The Indo-Fijians have fought for equal rights, although with only limited success. Many have left Fiji in search of better living conditions and social justice and this exodus has gained pace with the series of coups starting in the late 1980s.

Country statistics[edit]

Indian disapora groups by regional ethnicity[edit]

• Malayalee diaspora and Kerala NRI dept

See also[edit]

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External links[edit]

Superman is a fictional character, a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, the character first appeared in Action Comics #1 on April 18, 1938 which marked the rise of the Golden Age of Comic Books.^[1]

Ever since his inception, Superman has been depicted as a hero that originated from the planet Krypton and was given the name Kal-El at birth. As a baby, he was sent to Earth in a small spaceship by his biological family, Jor-El and Lara, moments before Krypton was destroyed in a natural cataclysm. His ship landed in the American countryside; he was found and adopted by farmers Jonathan and Martha Kent near the small town of Smallville, who named him Clark Kent. Clark displayed various superhuman abilities from the start as a young boy, such as incredible strength and impervious skin. His foster parents advised him to use his abilities for the benefit of humanity, and he decided to fight crime as a vigilante. To protect his privacy, he changes into a colorful costume and uses the alias 'Superman' when fighting crime. Clark Kent resides in the fictional American city of Metropolis in his adult life, where he works as a journalist for the Daily Planet disguising himself among the people there. Commonly depicted supporting charactersof Superman are depicted as residing in Metropolis such as prominent love interest of Superman, Lois Lane, good friend of Superman, Jimmy Olsen, and Daily Planet chief editor Perry White. He has many foes such as his classic enduring archenemy, the genius inventor Lex Luthor. He is a friend of many other superheroes in the DC Universe, such as Batman and Wonder Woman.

Although Superman was not the first superhero character, he popularized the superhero genre and defined its conventions. He remains the best selling superhero in comic books of all time^[2] and endured as one of the most lucrative franchises even outside of comic books.

• 1Publication history
• 2Comics
• 3In other media
• 4Copyright battles
• 5Fictography
• 6Powers, abilities and weaknesses
• 7Cultural impact
• 8Literary analysis

Publication history

Conception

Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster met in 1932 in a high school in Cleveland and bonded over their mutual love of fiction. Siegel aspired to become a writer and Shuster aspired to become an illustrator. Siegel wrote amateur science fiction stories, which he self-published a magazine called Science Fiction: The Advance Guard of Future Civilization. His friend Shuster often provided illustrations for his work.^[3][3] In January 1933, Siegel published a short story in his magazine titled 'The Reign of the Superman'. The titular character is a vagrant named Bill Dunn who is tricked by an evil scientist into consuming an experimental drug. The drug gives Dunn the powers of mind-reading, mind-control, and clairvoyance. He uses these powers maliciously for profit and amusement, but then the drug wears off, leaving him a powerless vagrant again. Shuster provided illustrations, depicting Dunn as a bald man.^[4]

Siegel and Shuster shifted to making comic strips, with a focus on adventure and comedy. They wanted to become syndicated newspaper strip authors, so they showed their ideas to various newspaper editors. However, the newspaper editors told them that their ideas weren't sensational enough. If they wanted to make a successful comic strip, it had to be something more sensational than anything else on the market. This prompted Siegel to revisit Superman as a comic strip character.^[5][6] Siegel modified Superman's powers to make him even more sensational: Like Bill Dunn, the second prototype of Superman is given powers against his will by an unscrupulous scientist, but instead of psychic abilities, he acquires superhuman strength and bullet-proof skin.^[7][8] Additionally, this new Superman was a crime-fighting hero instead of a villain, because Siegel noted that comic strips with heroic protagonists tended to be more successful.^[9] In later years, Siegel once recalled that this Superman wore a 'bat-like' cape in some panels, but typically he and Shuster agreed there was no costume yet, and there is none apparent in the surviving artwork.^[10][11]

Siegel and Shuster showed this second concept of Superman to Consolidated Book Publishers, based in Chicago.^[12][a] In May 1933, Consolidated had published a comic book titled Detective Dan: Secret Operative 48.^[13] It contained all-original stories as opposed to reprints of newspaper strips, which was a novelty at the time.^[14] Siegel and Shuster put together a comic book in similar format called The Superman. A delegation from Consolidated visited Cleveland that summer on a business trip, and Siegel and Shuster took the opportunity to present their work in person.^[15][16] Although Consolidated expressed interest, they later pulled out of the comics business without ever offering a book deal because the sales of Detective Dan were disappointing.^[17][18]

Siegel believed publishers kept rejecting them because he and Shuster were young and unknown, so he looked for an established artist to replace Shuster.^[19] When Siegel told Shuster what he was doing, Shuster reacted by burning their rejected Superman comic, sparing only the cover. They continued collaborating on other projects, but for the time being Shuster was through with Superman.^[20]

Siegel wrote to numerous artists.^[19] The first response came in July 1933 from Leo O'Mealia, who drew the Fu Manchu strip for the Bell Syndicate.^[21][22] In the script that Siegel sent O'Mealia, Superman's origin story changes: He is a 'scientist-adventurer' from the far future, when humanity has naturally evolved 'super powers'. Just before the Earth explodes, he escapes in a time-machine to the modern era, whereupon he immediately begins using his super powers to fight crime.^[23] O'Mealia produced a few strips and showed them to his newspaper syndicate, but they were rejected. Nothing of Siegel and O'Mealia's collaboration survives, except in Siegel's memoir.^[24]

In June 1934, Siegel found another partner: an artist in Chicago named Russell Keaton.^[25][26] Keaton drew the Buck Rogers and Skyroads comic strips. In the script that Siegel sent Keaton in June, Superman's origin story further evolved: In the distant future, when Earth is on the verge of exploding due to 'giant cataclysms', the last surviving man sends his three-year-old son back in time to the year 1935. The time-machine appears on a road where it is discovered by motorists Sam and Molly Kent. They leave the boy in an orphanage, but the staff struggle to control him because he has superhuman strength and impenetrable skin. The Kents adopt the boy and name him Clark, and teach him that he must use his fantastic natural gifts for the benefit of humanity. In November, Siegel sent Keaton an extension of his script: an adventure where Superman foils a conspiracy to kidnap a star football player. The extended script mentions that Clark wears a special 'uniform' when assuming the identity of Superman, but it is not described.^[27] Keaton produced two weeks' worth of strips based on Siegel's script. In November, Keaton showed his strips to a newspaper syndicate, but they were rejected, and he abandoned the project.^[28][29]

Siegel and Shuster reconciled and resumed developing Superman together. The character became an alien from the planet Krypton. Shuster designed the now-familiar costume: tights with an 'S' on the chest, over-shorts, and a cape.^[30][31][32] They made Clark Kent a journalist who pretends to be timid, and conceived his colleague Lois Lane, who is attracted to the bold and mighty Superman but does not realize that he and Kent are the same person.^[33]

In June 1935 Siegel and Shuster finally found work with National Allied Publications, a comic magazine publishing company in New York owned by Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson.^[34] Wheeler-Nicholson published two of their strips in New Fun Comics #6 (1935): 'Henri Duval' and 'Doctor Occult'.^[35] Siegel and Shuster also showed him Superman, and asked him to market Superman to the newspapers on their behalf.^[36] In October, Wheeler-Nicholson offered to publish Superman in one of his own magazines.^[37] Siegel and Shuster refused his offer because Wheeler-Nicholson had demonstrated himself to be an irresponsible businessman. He had been slow to respond to their letters and hadn't paid them for their work in New Fun Comics #6. They chose to keep marketing Superman to newspaper syndicates themselves.^[38][39] Despite the erratic pay, Siegel and Shuster kept working for Wheeler-Nicholson because he was the only publisher who was buying their work, and over the years they produced other adventure strips for his magazines.^[40]

Wheeler-Nicholson's financial difficulties continued to mount. In 1936, he formed a joint corporation with Harry Donenfeld and Jack Liebowitz called Detective Comics, Inc., in order to release his third magazine, titled Detective Comics. Siegel and Shuster produced stories for Detective Comics too, such as 'Slam Bradley'. Wheeler-Nicholson fell into deep debt to Donenfeld and Liebowitz, and in early January 1938, Donenfeld and Liebowitz petitioned Wheeler-Nicholson's company into bankruptcy and seized it.^[3][41]

In early December 1937, Siegel visited Liebowitz in New York, and Liebowtiz asked Siegel to produce some comics for an upcoming comic anthology magazine called Action Comics.^[42][43] Siegel proposed some new stories, but not Superman. Siegel and Shuster were, at the time, negotiating a deal with the McClure Newspaper Syndicate for Superman. In early January of 1938, Siegel had a three-way telephone conversation with Liebowitz and an employee of McClure named Max Gaines. Gaines informed Siegel that McClure had rejected Superman, and asked if he could forward their Superman strips to Liebowitz so that Liebowitz could consider them for Action Comics. Siegel agreed.^[44] Liebowitz and his colleagues were impressed by the strips, and they asked Siegel and Shuster to develop the strips into 13 pages for Action Comics.^[45] Having grown tired of rejections, Siegel and Shuster accepted the offer.^[46][47] Siegel and Shuster submitted their work in late February and were paid $130 (AFI $2,314) for those 13 pages.^[48] In early March they signed a contract (at Liebowitz's request) in which they released the copyright for Superman to Detective Comics, Inc. This was normal practice in the business, and Siegel and Shuster had given away the copyrights to their previous works as well.^[49]

Superman was finally published on April 18, 1938, in the first issue of Action Comics, which was a huge success thanks to Superman’s feature.^[50][1][51]

Influences

Siegel and Shuster read pulp science-fiction and adventure magazines, and many stories featured characters with fantastical abilities such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and superhuman strength. An influence was John Carter of Mars, a character from the novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs. John Carter is a human who is transported to Mars, where the lower gravity makes him stronger than the natives and allows him to leap great distances.^[52][53] Another influence was Philip Wylie's 1930 novel Gladiator, featuring a protagonist named Hugo Danner who had similar powers.^[54][55]

Superman's stance and devil-may-care attitude was influenced by the characters of Douglas Fairbanks, who starred in adventure films such as The Mark of Zorro and Robin Hood.^[56] The name of Superman's home city, Metropolis, was taken from the 1927 film of the same name.^[57]Popeye cartoons were also an influence.^[57]

Clark Kent's harmless facade and dual identity was inspired by the protagonists of such movies as Don Diego de la Vega in The Mark of Zorro and Sir Percy Blakeney in The Scarlet Pimpernel. Siegel thought this would make for interesting dramatic contrast and good humor.^[58][59] Another inspiration was slapstick comedian Harold Lloyd. The archetypal Lloyd character was a gentle man who finds himself abused by bullies but later in the story snaps and fights back furiously.^[60]

Kent is a journalist because Siegel often imagined himself becoming one after leaving school. The love triangle between Lois Lane, Clark, and Superman was inspired by Siegel's own awkwardness with girls.^[61]

The pair collected comic strips in their youth, with a favorite being Winsor McCay's fantastical Little Nemo.^[57] Shuster remarked on the artists which played an important part in the development of his own style: 'Alex Raymond and Burne Hogarth were my idols – also Milt Caniff, Hal Foster, and Roy Crane.'^[57] Shuster taught himself to draw by tracing over the art in the strips and magazines they collected.^[3]

As a boy, Shuster was interested in fitness culture^[62] and a fan of strongmen such as Siegmund Breitbart and Joseph Greenstein. He collected fitness magazines and manuals and used their photographs as visual references for his art.^[3]

The visual design of Superman came from multiple influences. The tight-fitting suit and shorts were inspired by the costumes of wrestlers, boxers, and strongmen. In early concept art, Shuster gave Superman laced sandals like those of strongmen and classical heroes, but these were eventually changed to red boots.^[63] The costumes of Douglas Fairbanks were also an influence.^[64] The emblem on his chest may have been inspired by the uniforms of athletic teams. Many pulp action heroes such as swashbucklers wore capes. Superman's face was based on Johnny Weissmuller with touches derived from the comic-strip character Dick Tracy and from the work of cartoonist Roy Crane.^[65]

The word 'superman' was commonly used in the 1920s and 1930s to describe men of great ability, most often athletes and politicians.^[66] It occasionally appeared in pulp fiction stories as well, such as 'The Superman of Dr. Jukes'.^[67] It is unclear whether Siegel and Shuster were influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of the Übermensch; they never acknowledged as much.^[68]

Comics

Comic books

Since 1938, Superman stories have been regularly published in periodical comic books published by DC Comics. The first and oldest of these is Action Comics, which began in April 1938.^[1]Action Comics was initially an anthology magazine, but it eventually became dedicated to Superman stories. The second oldest periodical is Superman, which began in June 1939. Action Comics and Superman have been published without interruption (ignoring changes to the title and numbering scheme).^[70][71] A number of other shorter-lived Superman periodicals have been published over the years.^[72] Superman is part of the DC Universe, which is a shared universe of superhero characters owned by DC Comics, and consequently he frequently appears in stories alongside the likes of Batman, Wonder Woman, and others.

Superman has sold more comic books over his publication history than any other American superhero character.^[2] Exact sales figures for the early decades of Superman comic books are hard to find because, like most publishers at the time, DC Comics concealed this data to deny competitors, but sales of Action Comics and Superman probably peaked in the mid-1940s and thereafter steadily declined as part of a general trend in comic book sales.^[73] Sales data first became public in 1960, and showed that Superman was the best-selling comic book character of the 1960s.^[74][75] Sales rose again starting in 1987. Superman #75 (Nov 1992) sold over 23 million copies,^[76] making it the best-selling issue of a comic book of all time, thanks to a media sensation over the supposedly permanent death of the character in that issue.^[77] Sales declined from that point on. In March 2018, Action Comics sold just 51,534 copies, although such low figures are normal for superhero comic books in general (for comparison, Amazing Spider-Man #797 sold only 128,189 copies).^[78] The comic books are today considered a niche aspect of the Superman franchise due to low readership,^[79] though they remain influential as creative engines for the movies and television shows. Comic book stories can be produced produced quickly and cheaply, and are thus an ideal medium for experimentation.^[80]

Whereas comic books in the 1950s were read by children, since the 1990s the average reader has been an adult.^[81] A major reason for this shift was DC Comics' decision in the 1970s to sell its comic books to specialty stores instead of traditional magazine retailers (supermarkets, newsstands, etc.) — a model called 'direct distribution'. This made comic books less accessible to children.^[82]

Newspaper strips

Beginning in January 1939, a Superman daily comic strip appeared in newspapers, syndicated through the McClure Syndicate. A color Sunday version was added that November. Jerry Siegel wrote most of the strips until he was conscripted in 1943. The Sunday strips had a narrative continuity separate from the daily strips, possibly because Siegel had to delegate the Sunday strips to ghostwriters.^[83] By 1941, the newspaper strips had an estimated readership of 20 million.^[84] Joe Shuster drew the early strips, then passed the job to Wayne Boring.^[85] From 1949 to 1956, the newspaper strips were drawn by Win Mortimer.^[86] The strip ended in May 1966, but was revived from 1977 to 1983 to coincide with a series of movies released by Warner Bros.^[87]

Editors

Initially, Siegel was allowed to write Superman more or less as he saw fit because nobody had anticipated the success and rapid expansion of the franchise.^[88][89] But soon Siegel and Shuster's work was put under careful oversight for fear of trouble with censors.^[90] Siegel was forced to tone down the violence and social crusading that characterized his early stories.^[91] Editor Whitney Ellsworth, hired in 1940, dictated that Superman not kill.^[92] Sexuality was banned, and colorfully outlandish villains such as Ultra-Humanite and Toyman were thought to be less nightmarish for young readers.^[93]

Mort Weisinger was the editor on Superman comics from 1941 to 1970, his tenure briefly interrupted by military service. Siegel and his fellow writers had developed the character with little thought of building a coherent mythology, but as the number of Superman titles and the pool of writers grew, Weisinger demanded a more disciplined approach.^[94] Weisinger assigned story ideas, and the logic of Superman's powers, his origin, the locales, and his relationships with his growing cast of supporting characters were carefully planned. Elements such as Bizarro, Supergirl, the Phantom Zone, the Fortress of Solitude, alternate varieties of kryptonite, robot doppelgangers, and Krypto were introduced during this era. The complicated universe built under Weisinger was beguiling to devoted readers but alienating to casuals.^[95] Weisinger favored lighthearted stories over serious drama, and avoided sensitive subjects such as the Vietnam War and the American civil rights movement because he feared his right-wing views would alienate his left-leaning writers and readers.^[96] Weisinger also introduced letters columns in 1958 to encourage feedback and build intimacy with readers.^[97]

Weisinger retired in 1970 and Julius Schwartz took over. By his own admission, Weisinger had grown out of touch with newer readers.^[98] Schwartz updated Superman by removing overused plot elements such as kryptonite and robot doppelgangers and making Clark Kent a television anchor.^[99] Schwartz also scaled Superman's powers down to a level closer to Siegel's original. These changes would eventually be reversed by later writers. Schwartz allowed stories with serious drama such as 'For the Man Who Has Everything' (Superman Annual #11), in which the villain Mongul torments Superman with an illusion of happy family life on a living Krypton.

Schwartz retired from DC Comics in 1986 and was succeeded by Mike Carlin as editor on Superman comics. His retirement coincided with DC Comics' decision to streamline the shared continuity called the DC Universe with the companywide-crossover storyline 'Crisis on Infinite Earths'. Writer John Byrne rewrote the Superman mythos, again reducing Superman's powers, which writers had slowly re-strengthened, and revised many supporting characters, such as making Lex Luthor a billionaire industrialist rather than a mad scientist, and making Supergirl an artificial shapeshifting organism because DC wanted Superman to be the sole surviving Kryptonian.

Carlin was promoted to Executive Editor for the DC Universe books in 1996, a position he held until 2002. K.C. Carlson took his place as editor of the Superman comics.

Aesthetic style

In the earlier decades of Superman comics, artists were expected to conform to a certain 'house style'.^[100] Joe Shuster defined the aesthetic style of Superman in the 1940s. After Shuster left National, Wayne Boring succeeded him as the principal artist on Superman comic books.^[101] He redrew Superman taller and more detailed.^[102] Around 1955, Curt Swan in turn succeeded Boring.^[103] The 1980s saw a boom in the diversity of comic book art and now there is no single 'house style' in Superman comics.^[104]

In other media

Radio

The first adaptation of Superman beyond comic books was a radio show, The Adventures of Superman, which ran from 1940 to 1951 for 2,088 episodes, most of which were aimed at children. The episodes were initially 15 minutes long, but after 1949 they were lengthened to 30 minutes. Most episodes were done live.^[105]Bud Collyer was the voice actor for Superman in most episodes. The show was produced by Robert Maxwell and Allen Ducovny, who were employees of Superman, Inc. and Detective Comics, Inc. respectively.^[106][107]

Cinema

Paramount Pictures released a series of Superman theatrical animated shorts between 1941 and 1943. Seventeen episodes in total were made, each 8–10 minutes long. The first nine episodes were produced by Fleischer Studios and the next eight were produced by Famous Studios. Bud Collyer provided the voice of Superman. The first episode had a production budget of $50,000 with the remaining episodes at $30,000 each^[108] (AFI $511,000), which was exceptionally lavish for the time.^[109] Joe Shuster provided model sheets for the characters, so the visuals resembled the contemporary comic book aesthetic.^[110]

The first live-action adaptation of Superman was a movie serial released in 1948, targeted at children. Kirk Alyn became the first actor to portray the hero onscreen. The production cost up $325,000^[111] (AFI $3,389,000). It was the most profitable movie serial in movie history.^[112] A sequel serial, Atom Man vs. Superman, was released in 1950. For flying scenes, Superman was hand-drawn in animated form, composited onto live-action footage.

The first feature film was Superman and the Mole Men, a 58-minute B-movie released in 1951, produced on an estimated budget of $30,000 (AFI $290,000).^[113] It starred George Reeves as Superman, and was intended to promote the subsequent television series.^[114]

The first big-budget movie was Superman in 1978, starring Christopher Reeve and produced by Alexander and Ilya Salkind. It was 143 minutes long and was made on a budget of $55 million (AFI $211,000,000). It is the most successful Superman feature film to date in terms of box office revenue adjusted for inflation.^[115] The soundtrack was composed by John Williams and was nominated for an Academy Award; the title theme has become iconic. Superman (1978) was the first big-budget superhero movie, and its success arguably paved the way for later superhero movies like Batman (1989) and Spider-Man (2002).^{[116][117][118]} The 1978 movie spawned four sequels: Superman II (1980), Superman III (1983), Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987) and Superman Returns (2006); the last of which replaced Reeve with Brandon Routh.

In 2013, Man of Steel was released by Warner Bros. as a reboot of the film series; starring Henry Cavill as Superman. Its sequel, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016), featured Superman alongside Batman and Wonder Woman, making it the first theatrical movie in which Superman appeared alongside other superheroes from the DC Universe. Cavill reprised his role in Justice League (2017) and is under contract to play Superman in one more film.

Television

Adventures of Superman, which aired from 1952 to 1958, was the first television series based on a superhero. It starred George Reeves as Superman. Whereas the radio serial was aimed at children, this television show was aimed at a general audience,^[119][120] although children made up the majority of viewers. Robert Maxwell, who produced the radio serial, was the producer for the first season. For the second season, Maxwell was replaced with Whitney Ellsworth. Ellsworth toned down the violence of the show to make it more suitable for children, though he still aimed for a general audience. This show was extremely popular in Japan, where it achieved an audience share rating of 74.2% in 1958.^[121]

Superboy aired from 1988 to 1992. It was produced by Alexander and Ilya Salkind, the same men who had produced the Superman movies starring Christopher Reeve.

Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman aired from 1993 to 1997. This show was aimed at adults and focused on the relationship between Clark Kent and Lois Lane as much as Superman's heroics.^[114]Dean Cain played Superman, and Teri Hatcher played Lois.

Smallville aired from 2001 to 2011. This show was targeted at young adult women.^[122] The show covered Clark Kent's life prior to becoming Superman, spanning ten years from his high school years in Smallville to his early life in Metropolis. Although Clark engages in heroics in this show, he doesn't wear a costume, nor does he call himself Superboy. Rather, he relies on misdirection and his blinding speed to avoid being recognized.

The first animated television series was The New Adventures of Superman, which aired from 1966 to 1970.

Superman: The Animated Series (with the voice of Tim Daly on main character) aired from 1996 to 2000. After the show's cancellation, this version of Superman appeared in the sequel shows Batman Beyond (voiced by Christopher McDonald) aired from 1999 to 2001 and Justice League and Justice League Unlimited (voiced by George Newbern), which ran from 2001 to 2006. All of these shows were produced by Bruce Timm. This was the most successful and longest-running animated version of Superman.^[114]

Superman has appeared in a series of direct-to-video animated movies produced by Warner Bros. Animation called DC Universe Animated Original Movies, beginning with Superman: Doomsday in 2007. Many of these movies are adaptations of popular comic book stories.

Tyler Hoechlin appears as Superman in The CWArrowverse television series Supergirl, Arrow and The Flash.

Electronic games

The first electronic game was simply titled Superman, and released in 1979 for the Atari 2600. The last game centered on Superman was Superman Returns (adapted from the movie) in 2006. Superman has, however, appeared in more recent games starring the Justice League, such as Injustice 2 (2017).

Copyright battles

Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster

In a contract dated 1 March 1938, Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster released the copyright to Superman to their employer, DC Comics (then known as Detective Comics, Inc.^[b]) prior to Superman's first publication in April. This was normal practice in the comic magazine industry and they had done the same with their previous published works (Slam Bradley, Doctor Occult, etc.),^[123] but Superman became far more popular and valuable than they anticipated and they much regretted giving him away.^[124] DC Comics retained Siegel and Shuster, and they were paid well because they were popular with the readers.^[125] Between 1938 and 1947, DC Comics paid them together over $400,000 (AFI $6,010,000).^[126][127]

Siegel wrote most of the magazine and daily newspaper stories until he was conscripted into the army in 1943, whereupon the task was passed to ghostwriters.^[128][129] While Siegel was serving in Hawaii, DC Comics published a story featuring a child version of Superman called 'Superboy', which was based on a script Siegel had submitted several years before. Siegel was furious because DC Comics did this without having bought the character.^[130]

After Siegel's discharge from the Army, he and Shuster sued DC Comics in 1947 for the rights to Superman and Superboy. The judge ruled that Superman belonged to DC Comics, but that Superboy was a separate entity that belonged to Siegel. Siegel and Shuster settled out-of-court with DC Comics, which paid the pair $94,013.16 (AFI $980,367) in exchange for the full rights to both Superman and Superboy.^[131] DC Comics then fired Siegel and Shuster.^[132]

DC Comics rehired Jerry Siegel as a writer in 1957.

In 1965, Siegel and Shuster attempted to regain rights to Superman using the renewal option in the Copyright Act of 1909, but the court ruled Siegel and Shuster had transferred the renewal rights to DC Comics in 1938. Siegel and Shuster appealed, but the appeals court upheld this decision. DC Comics fired Siegel when he filed this second lawsuit.

In 1975, Siegel and a number of other comic book writers and artists launched a public campaign for better compensation and treatment of comic creators. Warner Brothers agreed to give Siegel and Shuster a yearly stipend, full medical benefits, and credit their names in all future Superman productions in exchange for never contesting ownership of Superman. Siegel and Shuster upheld this bargain.^[3]

Shuster died in 1992. DC Comics offered Shuster's heirs a stipend in exchange for never challenging ownership of Superman, which they accepted for some years.^[131]

Siegel died in 1996. His heirs attempted to take the rights to Superman using the termination provision of the Copyright Act of 1976. DC Comics negotiated an agreement wherein it would pay the Siegel heirs several million dollars and a yearly stipend of $500,000 in exchange for permanently granting DC the rights to Superman. DC Comics also agreed to insert the line 'By Special Arrangement with the Jerry Siegel Family' in all future Superman productions.^[133] The Siegels accepted DC's offer in an October 2001 letter.^[131]

Copyright lawyer and movie producer Marc Toberoff then struck a deal with the heirs of both Siegel and Shuster to help them get the rights to Superman in exchange for signing the rights over to his production company, Pacific Pictures. Both groups accepted. The Siegel heirs called off their deal with DC Comics and in 2004 sued DC for the rights to Superman and Superboy. In 2008, the judge ruled in favor of the Siegels. DC Comics appealed the decision, and the appeals court ruled in favor of DC, arguing that the October 2001 letter was binding. In 2003, the Shuster heirs served a termination notice for Shuster's grant of his half of the copyright to Superman. DC Comics sued the Shuster heirs in 2010, and the court ruled in DC's favor on the grounds that the 1992 agreement with the Shuster heirs barred them from terminating the grant.^[131]

Superman is due to enter the public domain in 2033.^[134][c] However, this would only apply to the character as he is depicted in Action Comics#1 (1938). Versions of him with later developments, such as his power of 'heat vision' (introduced in 1949), may persist under copyright until the works they were introduced in enter the public domain themselves.^[135]

Captain Marvel

Superman's success immediately spawned a wave of imitations. The most successful of these in this early age was Captain Marvel, first published by Fawcett Comics in December 1939. Captain Marvel had many similarities to Superman: Herculean strength, invulnerability, the ability to fly, a cape, a secret identity, and a job as a journalist. DC Comics filed a lawsuit against Fawcett Comics for copyright infringement.

The trial began in March 1948 after seven years of discovery. The judge ruled that Fawcett had indeed infringed on Superman. However, the judge also found that the copyright notices that appeared with the Superman newspaper strips did not meet the technical standards of the Copyright Act of 1909 and were therefore invalid. Furthermore, since the newspaper strips carried stories adapted from Action Comics, the judge ruled that DC Comics had effectively abandoned the copyright to the Action Comics stories. The judge ruled that DC Comics had effectively abandoned the copyright to Superman and therefore forfeited its right to sue Fawcett for copyright infringement.^[131]

DC Comics appealed this decision. The appeals court ruled that unintentional mistakes in the copyright notices of the newspaper strips did not invalidate the copyrights. Furthermore, Fawcett knew that DC Comics never intended to abandon the copyrights, and therefore Fawcett's infringement was not an innocent misunderstanding, and therefore Fawcett owed damages to DC Comics.^[d] The appeals court remanded the case back to the lower court to determine how much Fawcett owed in damages.^[131]

At that point, Fawcett Comics decided to settle out of court with DC Comics. Fawcett paid DC Comics $400,000 (AFI $3,745,771) and agreed to stop publishing Captain Marvel. The last Captain Marvel story from Fawcett Comics was published in September 1953.^[136] DC licensed in 1972, and eventually acquired by 1991, the intellectual property rights to Captain Marvel, today marketed under the title Shazam!^[137]

Fictography

This section details the most consistent elements of the Superman narrative in the myriad stories published since 1938.

– Superman on Radio & Audio ^[138]

Superman himself

In Action Comics#1 (1938), Superman is born on an alien world to a technologically advanced species that resembles humans. Shortly after he is born, his planet is destroyed in a natural cataclysm, but Superman's scientist father foresaw the calamity and saves his baby son by sending him to Earth in a small spaceship. The ship, sadly, is too small to carry anyone else, so Superman's parents stay behind and die. The earliest newspaper strips name the planet 'Krypton', the baby 'Kal-L', and his biological parents 'Jor-L' and 'Lora';^[139] their names were changed to 'Jor-el', and 'Lara' in a 1942 spinoff novel by George Lowther.^[140] The ship lands in the American countryside, where the baby is discovered by the Kents, a farming couple.

The Kents name the boy Clark and raise him in a farming community. A 1947 episode of the radio serial places this unnamed community in Iowa.^[141] It is named Smallville in Superboy #2 (June 1949). The 1978 Superman movie placed it in Kansas, as have most Superman stories since.^[142]New Adventures of Superboy #22 (Oct. 1981) places it in Maryland.

In Action Comics#1 and most stories before 1986, Superman's powers begin developing in infancy. From 1944 to 1986, DC Comics regularly published stories of Superman's childhood and adolescent adventures, when he called himself 'Superboy'. In Man of Steel #1, Superman's powers emerged more slowly and he began his superhero career as an adult.

The Kents teach Clark he must conceal his otherworldly origins and use his fantastic powers to do good. Clark creates the costumed identity of Superman so as to protect his personal privacy and the safety of his loved ones. As Clark Kent, he wears eyeglasses to disguise his face and wears his Superman costume underneath his clothes so that he can change at a moment's notice. To complete this disguise, Clark avoids violent confrontation, preferring to slip away and change into Superman when danger arises, and he suffers occasional ridicule for his apparent cowardice.

In Superboy #78 (1960), Superboy makes his costume out of the indestructible blankets found in the ship he came to Earth in. In Man of Steel #1 (1986), Martha Kent makes the costume from human-manufactured cloth, and it is rendered indestructible by an 'aura' that Superman projects. The 'S' on Superman's chest at first was simply an initial for 'Superman'. When writing the script for the 1978 movie, Tom Mankiewicz made it Superman's Kryptonian family crest.^[143] This was carried over into some comic book stories and later movies, such as Man of Steel. In the comic story Superman: Birthright, the crest is described as an old Kryptonian symbol for hope.

Clark works as a newspaper journalist. In the earliest stories, he worked for The Daily Star, but the second episode of the radio serial changed this to the Daily Planet. In comics from the early 1970s, Clark worked as a television journalist (an attempt to modernize the character). However, for the 1978 movie, the producers chose to make Clark a newspaper journalist again because that was how most of the public thought of him.^[144]

The first story in which Superman dies was published in Superman #149 (1961), in which he is murdered by Lex Luthor by means of kryptonite. This story was 'imaginary' and thus was ignored in subsequent books. In Superman #188 (April 1966), Superman is killed by kryptonite radiation, but is revived in the same issue by one of his android doppelgangers. In the 1990s The Death and Return of Superman story arc, after a deadly battle with Doomsday, Superman died in Superman #75 (Jan. 1993). He was later revived by the Eradicator. In Superman #52 (May 2016) Superman is killed by kryptonite poisoning, and this time he is not resurrected, but replaced by the Superman of an alternate timeline.

Superman maintains a secret hideout called the 'Fortress of Solitude', which is located somewhere in the Arctic. Here, Superman keeps a collection of mementos and a laboratory for science experiments. In Action Comics #241, the Fortress of Solitude is a cave in a mountain, sealed with a very heavy door that is opened with a gigantic key too heavy for anyone but Superman to use. In the 1978 movie, the Fortress of Solitude is a structure made out of ice. The Man of Steel portrays the Fortress as a Kryptonian exploratory craft buried deep beneath rock and ice.

Personality

In the original Siegel and Shuster stories, Superman's personality is rough and aggressive. The character often attacks and terrorizes wife beaters, profiteers, lynch mobs, and gangsters in a rough manner and with a looser moral code than audiences today might be used to.^[145] Superman in the comics of the 1930s is unconcerned about the harm his strength may cause. He tosses villainous characters in such a manner that fatalities would presumably occur, although these are seldom shown explicitly on the page. This came to an end in late 1940 when new editor Whitney Ellsworth instituted a code of conduct for his characters to follow, banning Superman from ever killing.^[146] The character was softened and given a sense of humanitarianism. Ellsworth's code, however, is not to be confused with 'the Comics Code', which was created in 1954 by the Comics Code Authority and ultimately abandoned by every major comic book publisher by the early 21st century.^[147]

In his first appearances, Superman was considered a vigilante by the authorities, being fired upon by the National Guard as he razed a slum so that the government would create better housing conditions for the poor. By 1942, however, Superman was working side-by-side with the police.^[148][149] Today, Superman is commonly seen as a brave and kind-hearted hero with a strong sense of justice, morality, and righteousness. He adheres to an unwavering moral code instilled in him by his adoptive parents.^[150] His commitment to operating within the law has been an example to many citizens and other heroes, but has stirred resentment and criticism among others, who refer to him as the 'big blue boy scout'. Superman can be rather rigid in this trait, causing tensions in the superhero community.^[151] This was most notable with Wonder Woman, one of his closest friends, after she killed Maxwell Lord.^[151]Booster Gold had an initial icy relationship with the Man of Steel, but grew to respect him.^[152]

Having lost his home world of Krypton, Superman is very protective of Earth,^[153] and especially of Clark Kent's family and friends. This same loss, combined with the pressure of using his powers responsibly, has caused Superman to feel lonely on Earth, despite having his friends and parents. Previous encounters with people he thought to be fellow Kryptonians, Power Girl^[154] (who is, in fact from the Krypton of the Earth-Two universe) and Mon-El,^[155] have led to disappointment. The arrival of Supergirl, who has been confirmed to be not only from Krypton, but also his cousin, has relieved this loneliness somewhat.^[156] Superman's Fortress of Solitude acts as a place of solace for him in times of loneliness and despair.^[157]

In Superman/Batman #3 (Dec. 2003), Batman, under writer Jeph Loeb, observes, 'It is a remarkable dichotomy. In many ways, Clark is the most human of us all. Then .. he shoots fire from the skies, and it is difficult not to think of him as a god. And how fortunate we all are that it does not occur to him.' In writer Geoff Johns' Infinite Crisis #1 (Dec. 2005), part of the 2005–2006 'Infinite Crisis' crossover storyline, Batman admonishes him for identifying with humanity too much and failing to provide the strong leadership that superhumans need.

Powers, abilities and weaknesses

The catalog of Superman's abilities and his strength has varied considerably over the vast body of Superman fiction released since 1938.

Since Action Comics #1 (1938), Superman has superhuman strength. The cover of Action Comics #1 shows him effortlessly lifting a car over his head. Another classic feat of strength on Superman's part is breaking steel chains. In some stories, he is strong enough to shift the orbits of planets^[158] and crush coal into diamond with his hands.

Since Action Comics #1 (1938), Superman has a highly durable body, invulnerable for most practical purposes. At the very least, bullets bounce harmlessly off his body. In some stories, such as Kingdom Come, not even a nuclear bomb can harm him.

In some stories, Superman is said to project an aura that renders invulnerable any tight-fitting clothes he wears, and hence his costume is as durable as he is despite being made of common human-factured cloth. This concept was first introduced in Man of Steel #1 (1986). In other stories, Superman's costume is made out of exotic materials that are as tough as he is.

In Action Comics #1, Superman could not fly. He traveled by running and leaping, which he could do to a prodigious degree thanks to his strength. Superman gained the ability to fly in the second episode of the radio serial in 1940.^[159] Superman can fly at great speeds. He can break the sound barrier, and in some stories he can even fly faster than light to travel to distant galaxies.

Superman can project and perceive X-rays via his eyes, which allows him to see through objects. He first uses this power in Action Comics #11 (1939). Certain materials such as lead can block his X-ray vision.

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Superman can project beams of heat from his eyes which are hot enough to melt steel. He first used this power in Superman #59 (1949) by applying his X-ray vision at its highest intensity. In later stories, this ability is simply called 'heat vision'.

Superman can hear sounds that are too faint for a human to hear, and at frequencies outside the human hearing range. This ability was introduced in Action Comics #11 (1939).

Since Action Comics #20 (1940), Superman possesses superhuman breath, which enables him to inhale or blow huge amounts of air, as well as holding his breath indefinitely to remain underwater or space without adverse effects. He has significant focus of his breath's intensity to the point of freezing targets by blowing on them. The 'freezing breath' was first demonstrated in Superman #129 (1959).

Action Comics #1 (1938) explained that Superman's strength was common to all Kryptonians because they were a species 'millions of years advanced of our own'. Later stories explained they evolved superhuman strength simply because of Krypton's higher gravity. Superman #146 (1961) explains that his abilities other than strength (flight, durability, etc.) are activated by the light of Earth's yellow sun. In Action Comics #300 (1963), all of his powers including strength are activated by yellow sunlight and can be deactivated by red sunlight similar to that of Krypton's sun.

Exposure to green kryptonite radiation nullifies Superman's powers and incapacitates him with pain and nausea; prolonged exposure will eventually kill him. Although green kryptonite is the most commonly seen form, writers have introduced other forms over the years: such as red, gold, blue, white, and black, each with its own effect.^[160] Gold kryptonite, for instance, permanently nullifies Superman's powers but otherwise does not harm him. Kryptonite first appeared in a 1943 episode of the radio serial.^[161] It first appeared in comics in Superman #61 (Dec. 1949).^[162]

Superman is also vulnerable to magic. Enchanted weapons and magical spells affect Superman as easily as they would a normal human. This weakness was established in Superman #171 (1964).

Supporting characters

Superman's first and most famous supporting character is Lois Lane, introduced in Action Comics #1. She is a fellow journalist at the Daily Planet. As Jerry Siegel conceived her, Lois considers Clark Kent to be a wimp, but she is infatuated with the bold and mighty Superman, not knowing that Kent and Superman are the same person. Siegel objected to any proposal that Lois discover that Clark is Superman because he felt that, as implausible as Clark's disguise is, the love triangle was too important to the book's appeal.^[163] However, Siegel wrote stories in which Lois suspects Clark is Superman tries to prove it, with Superman always duping her in the end; the first such story was in Superman #17 (July–August 1942).^[164][165] This was common plot in comic book stories prior to the 1970s. In a story in Action Comics #484 (June 1978), Clark Kent admits to Lois that he is Superman, and they marry. This was the first story in which Superman and Lois marry that wasn't an 'imaginary tale.' Many Superman stories since then have depicted Superman and Lois as a married couple, but about as many depict them in the classic love triangle.

Another major supporting character is Jimmy Olsen. He is a young photographer at the Daily Planet, who is friends with both Superman and Clark Kent, though in most stories he doesn't know that Clark is Superman. Jimmy is frequently described as 'Superman's pal', and was conceived to give young male readers a relatable character through which they could fantasize being friends with Superman. In this sense, he serves a similar function to Robin from Batman fiction.

In the earliest comic book stories, Clark Kent's employer is George Taylor of The Daily Star, but the second episode of the radio serial changed this to Perry White of the Daily Planet.^[166] Perry White does not know Clark is Superman.

Clark Kent's foster parents are Ma and Pa Kent. In many stories, one or both of them have died by the time Clark becomes Superman. Clark's parents taught him that he should use his abilities for altruistic means, but that he should also find some way to safeguard his private life.

Antagonists

The villains Superman faced in the earliest stories were ordinary humans, such as gangsters, corrupt politicians, and violent husbands; but they soon grew more colorful and outlandish so as to avoid offending censors or scaring children. The mad scientist Ultra-Humanite, introduced in Action Comics #13 (June 1939), was Superman's first recurring villain. Superman's best-known nemesis, Lex Luthor, was introduced in Action Comics #23 (April 1940) and has been depicted as either a mad scientist or a wealthy businessman (sometimes both).^[167] In 1944, the magical imp Mister Mxyzptlk, Superman's first recurring super-powered adversary, was introduced.^[168] Superman's first alien villain, Brainiac, debuted in Action Comics #242 (July 1958). The monstrous Doomsday, introduced in Superman: The Man of Steel #17–18 (Nov.-Dec. 1992), was the first villain to evidently kill Superman in physical combat. Other adversaries include the odd Superman-doppelgänger Bizarro, the Kryptonian criminal General Zod, and alien tyrants Darkseid and Mongul.^[169]

Alternative depictions

The details Superman's story and supporting cast vary across his large body of fiction released since 1938, but most versions conform to the basic template described above. A few stories feature radically altered versions of Superman. An example is the graphic novel Superman: Red Son, which depicts a communist Superman who rules the Soviet Union. DC Comics has on some occasions published crossover stories where different versions of Superman interact with each other using the plot device of parallel universes. For instance, in the 1960s, the Superman of 'Earth-One' would occasionally feature in stories alongside the Superman of 'Earth-Two', the latter of whom resembled Superman as he was portrayed in the 1940s. DC Comics has not developed a consistent and universal system to classify all versions of Superman.

Cultural impact

The superhero genre

Superman is often thought of as the first superhero. This point is debated by historians: Ogon Bat, the Phantom, Zorro, and Mandrake the Magician arguably fit the definition of the superhero yet predate Superman. Nevertheless, Superman popularized the genre and established its conventions: a costume, a codename, extraordinary abilities, and an altruistic mission. Superman's success in 1938 begat a wave of imitations, which include Batman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, Captain America, and Captain Marvel. This flourishing is today referred to as America's Golden Age of Comic Books, which lasted from 1938 to about 1950. The Golden Age ended when American superhero book sales declined, leading to the cancellation of many characters; but Superman was one of the few superhero franchises that survived this decline, and his sustained popularity into the late 1950s helped a second flourishing in the Silver Age of Comic Books, when characters such as Spider-Man, Iron Man, and The X-Men were created.

After World War 2, American superhero fiction entered Japanese culture. Astro Boy, first published in 1952, was inspired by Mighty Mouse, which itself was a parody of Superman.^[171] The Superman animated shorts from the 1940s were first broadcast on Japanese television in 1955, and they were followed in 1956 by the TV show Adventures of Superman starring George Reeves. These shows were very popular with the Japanese and inspired Japan's own prolific genre of superheroes. The first Japanese superhero movie, Super Giant, was released in 1957. The first Japanese superhero TV show was Moonlight Mask in 1958. Other notable characters from this genre include Ultraman, Kamen Rider, and Sailor Moon.^{[172][173][174]}

Merchandising

DC Comics trademarked the Superman chest logo in August 1938.^[176]Jack Liebowitz established Superman, Inc. in October 1939 to develop the franchise beyond the comic books.^[50] Superman, Inc. merged with DC Comics in October 1946.^[177] After DC Comics merged with Warner Communications in 1967, licensing for Superman was handled by the Licensing Corporation of America.^[178]

The Licensing Letter (an American market research firm) estimated that Superman licensed merchandise made $722 million in sales globally in 2017. 44.7% of this revenue came from the North American market. For comparison, in the same year, Spider-Man merchandise made $1.4 billion and Star Wars merchandise made $2.4 billion globally.^[179]

The earliest paraphernalia appeared in 1939: a button proclaiming membership in the Supermen of America club. The first toy was a wooden doll in 1939 made by the Ideal Novelty and Toy Company.^[180]Superman #5 (May 1940) carried an advertisement for a 'Krypto-Raygun', which was a gun-shaped device that could project images on a wall.^[181] The majority of Superman merchandise is targeted at children, but since the 1970s, adults have been increasingly targeted because the comic book readership has gotten older.^[182]

During World War 2, Superman was used to support the war effort. Action Comics and Superman carried messages urging readers to buy war bonds and participate in scrap drives.^[183]

Musical references

Superman has also featured as an inspiration for musicians, with songs by numerous artists from several generations celebrating the character. Donovan's Billboard Hot 100 topping single 'Sunshine Superman' utilized the character in both the title and the lyric, declaring 'Superman and Green Lantern ain't got nothing on me.'^[184] Folk singer-songwriter Jim Croce sung about the character in a list of warnings in the chorus of his song 'You Don't Mess Around with Jim', introducing the phrase 'you don't tug on Superman's cape' into popular lexicon.^[185] Other tracks to reference the character include Genesis' 'Land of Confusion',^[186] the video to which featured a Spitting Imagepuppet of Ronald Reagan dressed as Superman,^[187] '(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman' by The Kinks on their 1979 album Low Budget and 'Superman' by The Clique, a track later covered by R.E.M. on its 1986 album Lifes Rich Pageant. This cover is referenced by Grant Morrison in Animal Man, in which Superman meets the character, and the track comes on Animal Man's Walkman immediately after.^[188]Crash Test Dummies' 'Superman's Song', from the 1991 album The Ghosts That Haunt Me explores the isolation and commitment inherent in Superman's life.^[189]Five for Fighting released 'Superman (It's Not Easy)' in 2000, which is from Superman's point of view, although Superman is never mentioned by name.^[190] From 1988 to 1993, American composer Michael Daugherty composed 'Metropolis Symphony', a five-movement orchestral work inspired by Superman comics.^[191][192]

Parodies and homages

Superman is the prototypical superhero and consequently the most frequently parodied.^[193] The first popular parody was Mighty Mouse, introduced in 'The Mouse of Tomorrow' animated short in 1942.^[194] While the character swiftly took on a life of its own, moving beyond parody, other animated characters soon took their turn to parody the character. In 1943, Bugs Bunny was featured in a short, Super-Rabbit, which sees the character gaining powers through eating fortified carrots. This short ends with Bugs stepping into a phone booth to change into a real 'Superman' and emerging as a U.S. Marine. In 1956 Daffy Duck assumes the mantle of 'Cluck Trent' in the short 'Stupor Duck', a role later reprised in various issues of the Looney Tunes comic book.^[195] In the United Kingdom Monty Python created the character Bicycle Repairman, who fixes bicycles on a world full of Supermen, for a sketch in series of their BBC show.^[196] Also on the BBC was the sitcom My Hero, which presented Thermoman as a slightly dense Superman pastiche, attempting to save the world and pursue romantic aspirations.^[197] In the United States, Saturday Night Live has often parodied the figure, with Margot Kidder reprising her role as Lois Lane in a 1979 episode. The manga and anime series Dr. Slump featured the character Suppaman; a short, fat, pompous man who changes into a thinly veiled Superman-like alter-ego by eating a sour-tasting umeboshi. Jerry Seinfeld, a noted Superman fan, filled his series Seinfeld with references to the character and in 1997 asked for Superman to co-star with him in a commercial for American Express. The commercial aired during the 1998 NFL Playoffs and Super Bowl, Superman animated in the style of artist Curt Swan, again at the request of Seinfeld.^[198] Superman has also been used as reference point for writers, with Steven T. Seagle's graphic novel Superman: It's a Bird exploring Seagle's feelings on his own mortality as he struggles to develop a story for a Superman tale.^[199]Brad Fraser used the character as a reference point for his play Poor Super Man, with The Independent noting the central character, a gay man who has lost many friends to AIDS as someone who 'identifies all the more keenly with Superman's alien-amid-deceptive-lookalikes status.'^[200] Superman's image was also used in an AIDS awareness campaign by French organization AIDES. Superman was depicted as emaciated and breathing from an oxygen tank, demonstrating that no-one is beyond the reach of the disease, and it can destroy the lives of everyone.^[201]

Literary analysis

Superman has been interpreted and discussed in many forms in the years since his debut. The character's status as the first costumed superhero has allowed him to be used in many studies discussing the genre, Umberto Eco noting that 'he can be seen as the representative of all his similars'.^[202] Writing in Time in 1971, Gerald Clarke stated: 'Superman's enormous popularity might be looked upon as signalling the beginning of the end for the Horatio Alger myth of the self-made man.' Clarke viewed the comics characters as having to continuously update in order to maintain relevance, and thus representing the mood of the nation. He regarded Superman's character in the early seventies as a comment on the modern world, which he saw as a place in which 'only the man with superpowers can survive and prosper.'^[203] Andrew Arnold, writing in the early 21st century, has noted Superman's partial role in exploring assimilation, the character's alien status allowing the reader to explore attempts to fit in on a somewhat superficial level.

A.C. Grayling, writing in The Spectator, traces Superman's stances through the decades, from his 1930s campaign against crime being relevant to a nation under the influence of Al Capone, through the 1940s and World War II, a period in which Superman helped sell war bonds,^[204] and into the 1950s, where Superman explored the new technological threats. Grayling notes the period after the Cold War as being one where 'matters become merely personal: the task of pitting his brawn against the brains of Lex Luthor and Brainiac appeared to be independent of bigger questions', and discusses events post 9/11, stating that as a nation 'caught between the terrifying George W. Bush and the terrorist Osama bin Laden, America is in earnest need of a Saviour for everything from the minor inconveniences to the major horrors of world catastrophe. And here he is, the down-home clean-cut boy in the blue tights and red cape'.^[205]

An influence on early Superman stories is the context of the Great Depression. Superman took on the role of social activist, fighting crooked businessmen and politicians and demolishing run-down tenements.^[145] Comics scholar Roger Sabin sees this as a reflection of 'the liberal idealism of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal', with Shuster and Siegel initially portraying Superman as champion to a variety of social causes.^[206][207] In later Superman radio programs the character continued to take on such issues, tackling a version of the Ku Klux Klan in a 1946 broadcast, as well as combating anti-semitism and veteran discrimination.^{[208][209][210]}

Scott Bukatman has discussed Superman, and the superhero in general, noting the ways in which they humanize large urban areas through their use of the space, especially in Superman's ability to soar over the large skyscrapers of Metropolis. He writes that the character 'represented, in 1938, a kind of Corbusierian ideal. Superman has X-ray vision: walls become permeable, transparent. Through his benign, controlled authority, Superman renders the city open, modernist and democratic; he furthers a sense that Le Corbusier described in 1925, namely, that 'Everything is known to us'.'^[211]

Jules Feiffer has argued that Superman's real innovation lay in the creation of the Clark Kent persona, noting that what 'made Superman extraordinary was his point of origin: Clark Kent.' Feiffer develops the theme to establish Superman's popularity in simple wish fulfillment,^[212] a point Siegel and Shuster themselves supported, Siegel commenting that 'If you're interested in what made Superman what it is, here's one of the keys to what made it universally acceptable. Joe and I had certain inhibitions .. which led to wish-fulfillment which we expressed through our interest in science fiction and our comic strip. That's where the dual-identity concept came from' and Shuster supporting that as being 'why so many people could relate to it'.^[213]

Ian Gordon suggests that the many incarnations of Superman across media use nostalgia to link the character to an ideology of the American Way. He defines this ideology as a means of associating individualism, consumerism, and democracy and as something that took shape around WWII and underpinned the war effort. Superman he notes was very much part of that effort.^[214]

The superhero archetype

Superman is considered the prototypical superhero. He established the major conventions of the archetype: a selfless, prosocial mission; extraordinary, perhaps superhuman, abilities; a secret identity and codename; and a colorful costume that expresses his nature.^[215] Superman's cape and skin-tight suit are widely recognized as the generic superhero costume.^[216]

An allegory for immigrants

Superman's immigrant status is a key aspect of his appeal.^{[217][218][219]} Aldo Regalado saw the character as pushing the boundaries of acceptance in America. The extraterrestrial origin was seen by Regalado as challenging the notion that Anglo-Saxon ancestry was the source of all might.^[220] Gary Engle saw the 'myth of Superman [asserting] with total confidence and a childlike innocence the value of the immigrant in American culture.' He argues that Superman allowed the superhero genre to take over from the Western as the expression of immigrant sensibilities. Through the use of a dual identity, Superman allowed immigrants to identify with both of their cultures. Clark Kent represents the assimilated individual, allowing Superman to express the immigrants' cultural heritage for the greater good.^[218] David Jenemann has offered a contrasting view. He argues that Superman's early stories portray a threat: 'the possibility that the exile would overwhelm the country.'^[221] David Rooney, a theater critic for The New York Times, in his evaluation of the play, Year Zero, considers Superman to be the 'quintessential immigrant story .. (b)orn on an alien planet, he grows stronger on Earth, but maintains a secret identity tied to a homeland that continues to exert a powerful hold on him even as his every contact with those origins does him harm.'^[222]

Religious themes

Some see Judaic themes in Superman. The British rabbi Simcha Weinstein notes that Superman's story has some parallels to that of Moses. For example, Moses as a baby was sent away by his parents in a reed basket to escape death and adopted by a foreign culture. Weinstein also posits that Superman's Kryptonian name, 'Kal-El', resembles the Hebrew words קל-אל, which can be taken to mean 'voice of God'.^[223] The historian Larry Tye suggests that this 'Voice of God' is an allusion to Moses' role as a prophet.^[224] The suffix 'el', meaning '(of) God', is also found in the name of angels (e.g. Gabriel, Ariel), who are airborne humanoid agents of good with superhuman powers. The Nazis also thought Superman was a Jew and in 1940 Joseph Goebbels publicly denounced Superman and his creator Jerry Siegel.^[225] However, the historian Martin Lund argues that the evidence for Jewish influence is circumstantial, and notes that Jerry Siegel was not a practicing Jew and that he never acknowledged the influence of Judaism in any memoir or interview.^[226]

Superman stories have occasionally exhibited Christian themes as well. Screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz consciously made Superman an allegory for Christ in the 1978 movie starring Christopher Reeve: baby Kal-El's ship resembles the Star of Bethlehem, and Jor-El gives his son a messianic mission to lead humanity into a brighter future.^[227]

See also

Notes

1. ^Consolidated Book Publishers was also known as Humor Publishing. Jerry Siegel always referred to this publisher as 'Consolidated' in all interviews and memoirs. Humor Publishing was possibly a subsidiary of Consolidated.
2. ^National Allied Publications was founded in 1934 by Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson. Due to financial difficulties, Wheeler-Nicholson formed a corporation with Harry Donenfeld and Jack Liebowitz called Detective Comics, Inc. In January 1938, Wheeler-Nicholson sold his stake in National Allied Publications and Detective Comics to Donenfeld and Liebowitz as part of a bankruptcy settlement. On September 30, 1946, these two companies merged to become National Comics Publications. In 1961, the company changed its name to National Periodical Publications. In 1967 National Periodical Publications was purchased by Kinney National Company, which later purchased Warner Bros.-Seven Arts and became Warner Communications. In 1976, National Periodical Publications changed its name to DC Comics, which had been its nickname since 1940. Since 1940, the publisher had placed a logo with the initials 'DC' on all its magazine covers, and consequently 'DC Comics' became an informal name for the publisher.
3. ^See USC Title 17, Chapter 3, § 304(b). Because the copyright to Action Comics #1 was in its renewal term on October 27, 1998 (the date the Copyright Term Extension Act became effective), its copyright will expire 95 years after first publication.
4. ^See Copyright Act of 1909 § 20

References

1. ^ ^abcdThe copyright date of Action Comics#1 was registered as April 18, 1938.
   See Catalog of Copyright Entries. New Series, Volume 33, Part 2: Periodicals January-December 1938. United States Library of Congress. 1938. p. 129.
2. ^ ^ab'Best-selling comic books of all time worldwide as of February 2015 (in million copies)'. Statista. Retrieved July 30, 2018.
3. ^ ^abcdefRicca (2014)
4. ^Jerry Siegel (under the pseudonym Herbert S. Fine). 'The Reign of the Superman'. Science Fiction: The Advance Guard of Future Civilization #3. January 1933
   Summarized in Ricca (2014), pp. 70–72.
5. ^Jerry Siegel, quoted in Daniels (1998), p. 15: 'When we presented different strips to the syndicate editors, they would say, 'Well, this isn't sensational enough.' So I thought, I'm going to come up with something so wild they won't be able to say that.'
6. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
   '..one of the things which spurred me into creating a 'Superman' strip was something a syndicate editor said to me, after I had been submitting various proposed comic strips to him. 'The trouble with your stuff is that it isn't spectacular enough,' he said. 'You've got to come up with something sensational! Something more terrific than the other adventure strips on the market!'
7. ^Tye (2012), p. 17: 'The version he was drafting would again begin with a wild scientist empowering a normal human against his will, but this time the powers would be even more fantastic, and rather than becoming a criminal, the super-being would fight crime “with the fury of an outraged avenger.”'
8. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
   p. 30: 'The hero of 'THE SUPERMAN' comic book strip was also given super-powers against his will by a scientist. He gained fantastic strength, bullets bounced off him, etc. He fought crime with the fury of an outraged avenger.'
   50: 'What, I thought, could be more sensational than a Superman who could fly through the air, who was impervious to flames, bullets, and a mob of enraged amok adversaries?'
9. ^Siegel in Andrae (1983), p. 10: 'Obviously, having him a hero would be infinitely more commercial than having him a villain. I understand that the comic strip Dr. Fu Manchu ran into all sorts of difficulties because the main character was a villain. And with the example before us of Tarzan and other action heroes of fiction who were very successful, mainly because people admired them and looked up to them, it seemed the sensible thing to do to make The Superman a hero. The first piece was a short story, and that's one thing; but creating a successful comic strip with a character you'll hope will continue for many years, it would definitely be going in the wrong direction to make him a villain.'
10. ^Daniels (1998), p. 17: '.. usually [Shuster] and Siegel agreed that no special costume was in evidence, and the surviving artwork bears them out.'
11. ^Siegel and Shuster in Andrae (1983), p.9-10: 'Shuster: [..] It wasn't really Superman: that was before he evolved into a costumed figure. He was simply wearing a T-shirt and pants; he was more like Slam Bradley than anything else — just a man of action. [..]
    Siegel: In later years - maybe 10 or 15 years ago - I asked Joe what he remembered of this story, and he remembered a scene of a character crouched on the edge of a building, with a cape almost a la Batman. We don't specifically recall if the character had a costume or not. [..] Joe and I - especially Joe - seem to recall that there were some scenes in there in which that character had a bat-like cape.'
12. ^Daniels (1998), p. 17
13. ^The copyright date of Detective Dan Secret Operative 48 was registered as May 12, 1933.
    See Catalog of Copyright Entries. New Series, Volume 30, For the Year 1933, Part 1: Books, Group 2. United States Library of Congress. 1933. p. 351.
14. ^Scivally (2007), p. 6: 'Detective Dan—Secret Operative 48 was published by the Humor Publishing Company of Chicago. Detective Dan was little more than a Dick Tracy clone, but here, for the first time, in a series of black-and-white illustrations, was a comic magazine with an original character appearing in all-new stories. This was a dramatic departure from other comic magazines, which simply reprinted panels from the Sunday newspaper comic strips.'
15. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd):
    'I do recall, though, that when Mr. Livingston visited Cleveland, Joe and I showed 'THE SUPERMAN' comic book pages to Mr. Livingston in his hotel room, and he was favorably impressed.'
16. ^Beerbohm, Robert (1996). 'Siegel & Shuster Presents.. The Superman'. Comic Book Marketplace. No. 36. Gemstone Publishing Inc. pp. 47–50.:
    'So this early 'Superman' cover was done, replete with a '10¢' plug.. and was placed on an entire comic book, written, drawn, inked, and shown to the Humor people by Jerry and Joe when they happened to come through Cleveland (trying to shop Detective Dan to the NEA newspaper syndicate).'
17. ^Ricca (2014), pp. 97-98
18. ^Tye (2012), p. 17: 'Although the first response was encouraging, the second made it clear that the comic book was so unprofitable that its publishers put on hold any future stories.'
19. ^ ^abRicca (2014), p. 99: 'Jerry was convinced, just as he was in those early pulp days, that you had to align yourself with someone famous to be famous yourself. [..] Over the next year, Jerry contacted several major artists, including Mel Graff, J. Allen St. John, and even Bernie Schmittke [..]'
20. ^Tye (2012), p. 18: 'When I told Joe of this, he unhappily destroyed the drawn-up pages of 'THE SUPERMAN' burning them in the furnace of his apartment building. At my request, he gave me as a gift the torn cover. We continued collaborating on other projects.'
    In an interview with Andrae (1983), Shuster said he destroyed their 1933 Superman comic as a reaction to Humor Publishing's rejection letter, which contradicts Siegel's account in Siegel's unpublished memoir. Tye (2012) argues that the account from the memoir is the truth, and that Shuster lied in the interview to avoid tension.
    See also Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir by Jerry Siegel, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).
21. ^Tye (2012), p. 18:'Next on the list was Leo O’Mealia, who drew the Fu Manchu comic and soon found in his mailbox Jerry’s more fully developed script for Superman.'
22. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
    'Leo O'Mealia's first letter to me was dated July 17, 1933'
23. ^Tye (2012), p. 18
24. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
    'I no longer have a copy of the script of that particular version of 'Superman'. [..] I never saw [O'Mealia's] Superman drawings. He did not send me a copy of it.'
25. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd). Extract filed under Exhibit A (Docket 184) in Laura Siegel Larson v Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc., DC Comics, Case no. 13-56243:
    'In a letter dated June 9, 1934, he wrote back expressing interesting in the possibility of our teaming-up together on a newspaper syndication comic strip. [..] Russell Keaton's letter to me of June 14, 1934 was very enthusiastic. He stated that in his opinion 'Superman' was already a tremendous hit, and that he would be glad to collaborate with me on 'Superman'.'
26. ^Jones (2004), p. 112-113
27. ^Ricca (2014), p. 101-102
    Excerpts of Siegel and Keaton's collaboration can be found in Exhibit A (Docket 373-3), Exhibit C (Docket 347-2), Exhibit D (Docket 347-2), and Exhibit E (Docket 347-2) in Laura Siegel Larson v Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc., DC Comics, Case no. 13-56243.
    (Compilation available at Dropbox).
28. ^Ricca (2014), p. 102: 'Jerry tried to sell this version to the syndicates, but no one was interested, so Keaton gave up.'
29. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd). Extract filed under Exhibit A (Docket 184) in Laura Siegel Larson v Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc., DC Comics, Case no. 13-56243:
    'Keaton's next letter to me, sent November 3, 1934, stated 'Superman' was in a locker in a bus station, and that he was going to show the feature to Publisher's Syndicate, after that weekend. [..] I got a brief note from Russell Keaton. He wrote that he was completely withdrawing from any participation at all in the 'Superman' comic strip and that as far as he was concerned: 'the book is closed'. Unhappily, I destroyed the letter.'
30. ^Interview with Joe Shuster by Bertil Falk in 1975, quoted in Alter Ego #56 (Feb 2006):
    'SHUSTER: [..] I conceived the character in my mind’s eye to have a very, very colorful costume of a cape and, you know, very, very colorful tights and boots and the letter “S” on his chest.
    FALK: You did that, not Siegel?
    SHUSTER: Yes, yes. I did that, because that was my concept from what he described, but he did inspire me [..]'
31. ^Daniels 1998, p. 18
32. ^Over the years, Siegel and Shuster made contradictory statements regarding when they developed Superman's familiar costume. They occasionally claimed to have developed it immediately in 1933. Daniels (1998) writes: '.. usually [Shuster] and Siegel agreed that no special costume was in evidence [in 1933], and the surviving artwork bears them out.' The cover art for their 1933 proposal to Humor Publishing shows a shirtless, cape-less Superman. Siegel's collaboration with Russell Keaton in 1934 contains no description nor illustration of Superman in costume. Tye (2012) writes that Siegel and Shuster developed the costume shortly after they resumed working together in late 1934.
33. ^Siegel's unpublished memoir, The Story Behind Superman (Archived September 13, 2016, at the Wayback Machine), as well as an interview with Thomas Andrae in Nemo #2 (1983), corroborate each other that Clark Kent's timid-journalist persona and Lois Lane were developed in 1934.
34. ^Wheeler-Nicholson offered Siegel and Shuster work in a letter dated June 6, 1935. See Ricca (2014), p. 104.
35. ^Ricca (2014), p. 104.
36. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).
    p. 55: 'In addition, I submitted 'Superman' for newspaper syndication consideration by Wheeler-Nicholson.'
37. ^Letter from Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson to Siegel and Shuster, dated October 4, 1935, quoted in Ricca (2014), p. 146: '..you would be much better off doing Superman in full page in four colors for one of our publications.'
38. ^Jerome Siegel, in a sworn affidavit signed 1 March 1973, filed in Jerome Siegel & Joseph Shuster vs National Periodical Publications et al, 69 Civ 1429:
    'In 1935 Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, a publisher of comic books, expressed interest in Superman and tried to persuade us that the property would be more successful if published in comic book form where it would be seen in color, than it would be in a black and white daily strip. Our experience with him had been such that we did not consider him the publisher to entrust with the property and his proposal was rejected.'
39. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).
    p. 57 'Joe and I were not sold on Wheeler-Nicholson and hoped to place 'Superman' with what we hoped would be a more responsible organization. I asked Major Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson to return the 'Superman' strips to me. [..] I continued my marketing attempts to place 'Superman' with a newspaper syndicate.'
40. ^Tye (2012), p. 24: 'So while they continued to write and draw for him, and to live off what payments they got, they determined not to trust him with their prize possession.'
41. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
    'On January 5, 1938 Liebowitz wrote to me [..] that the Nicholson Publishing Company had been petitioned into bankruptcy by its creditors. [..] On January 10, Vin Sullivan wrote to me that Nicholson Publishing Company was in the hands of receivers [..] and that 'Detective Comics' was being published by the firm for which Liebowitz was the manager.'
42. ^J. Addison Young, 'Findings of Fact' (April 12, 1948), in Jerome Siegel and Joseph Shuster vs. National Comics Publications Inc. et al. (New York Supreme Court 1947) (Scan available on Scribd):
    'On December 4, 1937, defendant LIEBOWITZ, representing DETECTIVE COMICS, INC., met plaintiff SIEGEL in New York City.'
43. ^Siegel, Jerry. Unpublished memoir 'The Story Behind Superman #1', registered for U.S. copyright in 1978 under later version Creation of a Superhero as noted by Tye (2012), p. 309. P. 5. Memoir additionally cited by Ricca (2014), p. 148, and available online at sites including 'The Story Behind Superman #1'. Archived from the original on December 21, 2015. Retrieved December 20, 2015 – via Scribd.com. Note: Archive of p. 1 only.
44. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
    'I received a telephone call early in January of 1938 from Gaines of the McClure Syndicate. This was a three-way call between Gaines, Liebowitz and myself. Gaines informed me that the syndicate was unable to use the various strips which I had sent for inclusion in the proposed syndicate newspaper tabloid. He asked my permission to turn these features, including 'Superman', over to Detective Comics' publishers for consideration for their proposed new magazine, 'Action Comics'. I consented.'
45. ^Via editor Vin Sullivan, in a letter to Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, dated 10 January 1948. Quoted in Ricca (2014)
46. ^Jerry Siegel. The Life and Times of Jerry Siegel (unpublished memoir, written c.1946; Scans available at Dropbox and Scribd):
    'Joe and I talked it over, decided we were tired of seeing the strip rejected everywhere, and would at least like to see it in print. And so we pasted our samples of a SUPERMAN daily strip into comic magazine page form, as request, and sent it on.'
47. ^Kobler, John (June 21, 1941). 'Up, Up, and Awa-a-ay!: The Rise of Superman, Inc'(PDF). The Saturday Evening Post. Archived(PDF) from the original on September 13, 2016.:
    '[Siegel and Shuster], who by this time had abandoned hope that Superman would ever amount to much, mulled this over gloomily. Then Siegel shrugged, ‘Well, at least this way we'll see [Superman] in print.’ They signed the form.'
    NOTE: The form mentioned refers to a contract of sale signed on March 1, 1938.
48. ^J. Addison Young, 'Findings of Fact' (April 12, 1948), in Jerome Siegel and Joseph Shuster vs. National Comics Publications Inc. et al. (New York Supreme Court 1947) (Scan available on Scribd):
    'Defendant THE MC CLURE NEWSPAPER SYNDICATE, then submitted to DETECTIVE COMICS, INC. the SUPERMAN comic strip created by plaintiffs, which strip consisted of a few panels suitable for newspaper syndication [..] DETECTIVE COMICS, INC. examined the old material and returned it to plaintiffs for revision and expansion into a full length thirteen page comic strip release suitable for magazine publication. [..] Plaintiffs revised and expanded the said SUPERMAN material in complicance with the said request of DETECTIVE COMICS, INC. and on or about February 22, 1938 resubmitted such revised and expanded material to DETECTIVE COMICS, INC. [..] On March 1, 1938 [..] DETECTIVE COMICS, INC. wrote to plaintiff SIEGEL [..] enclosing a check in the sum of $412. which included $130. in payment of the first thirteen page SUPERMAN release at the agreed rate of $10. per page [..]'
49. ^Jones (2004), p. 125: 'They signed a release surrendering all rights to the publisher. They knew that was how the business worked - that's how they'd sold every creation from Henri Duval to Slam Bradley.'
50. ^ ^abTye (2012)
51. ^J. Addison Young, 'Findings of Fact' (April 12, 1948), in Jerome Siegel and Joseph Shuster vs. National Comics Publications Inc. et al. (New York Supreme Court 1947) (Scan available on Scribd):
    'The first thirteen pages of SUPERMAN material were published on April 18, 1938, in the June, 1938 issue of 'Action Comics'magazine.'
52. ^Andrae (1983): '..when I did the version in 1934, (which years later, in 1938, was published, in revised form, in Action Comics #1) the John Carter stories did influence me. Carter was able to leap great distances because the planet Mars was smaller that [sic] the planet Earth; and he had great strength. I visualized the planet Krypton as a huge planet, much larger than Earth; so whoever came to Earth from that planet would be able to leap great distances and lift great weights.'
53. ^The History Behind Superman's Ever-Changing SuperpowersArchived March 26, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
54. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978;Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
    'I had read and enjoyed Philip Wylie's book 'The Gladiator'. It influenced me, too.'
55. ^Feeley, Gregory (March 2005). 'When World-views Collide: Philip Wylie in the Twenty-first Century'. Science Fiction Studies. 32 (95). ISSN0091-7729. Archived from the original on April 3, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2006.
56. ^Andrae (1983): '.. I was inspired by the movies. In the silent films, my hero was Douglas Fairbanks Senior, who was very agile and athletic. So I think he might have been an inspiration to us, even in his attitude. He had a stance which I often used in drawing Superman. You'll see in many of his roles—including Robin Hood—that he always stood with his hands on his hips and his feet spread apart, laughing—taking nothing seriously.'
57. ^ ^abcdAndrae (1983)
58. ^Jerry Siegel, quoted in Andrae (1983): 'I loved The Mark of Zorro, and I'm sure that had some influence on me. I did also see The Scarlet Pimpernel but didn't care much for it.'
59. ^Jerry Siegel. Creation of a Superhero (unpublished memoir, written c.1978; Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd).:
    'In movies, I had seen 'The Scarlet Pimpernel', 'The Mark of Zorro' and Rudolph Valentino in 'The Eagle', and I thought that a mighty hero, who in another identity pretended to be an ineffectual weakling, made for great dramatic contrast. In addition, it would, in a comic strip, permit some humorous characterization.'
60. ^Siegel: 'We especially loved some of those movies in which Harold Lloyd would start off as a sort of momma's boy being pushed around, kicked around, thrown around, and then suddenly would turn into a fighting whirlwind.'
    Shuster: 'I was kind of mild-manned and wore glasses so I really identified with it'
    Anthony Wall (1981). Superman – The Comic Strip Hero (Television production). BBC. Event occurs at 00:04:50. Archived from the original on December 28, 2015.
61. ^Andrae (1983): Siegel: 'As a high school student, I thought that some day I might become a reporter, and I had crushes on several attractive girls who either didn't know I existed or didn't care I existed. [..] It occurred to me: What if I was real terrific? What if I had something special going for me, like jumping over buildings or throwing cars around or something like that? Then maybe they would notice me.'
62. ^Shuster in Andrae (1983) 'I tried to build up my body. I was so skinny; I went in for weight-lifting and athletics. I used to get all the body-building magazines from the second-hand stores — and read them..'
63. ^Andrae (1983): 'I also had classical heroes and strongmen in mind, and this shows in the footwear. In the third version Superman wore sandals laced halfway up the calf. You can still see this on the cover of Action #1, though they were covered over in red to look like boots when the comic was printed.'
64. ^Andrae (1983): 'It was inspired by the costume pictures that Fairbanks did: they greatly influenced us.'
65. ^Ricca (2014), p. 124: 'The overall physical look of Superman himself is from Johnny Weissmuller, whose face Joe swiped from movie magazines and news articles. .. Joe just squinted the eyes like his idol Roy Crane [did with his characters] and added a Dick Tracy smile.' Ricca cites Beerbohm, Robert L. (August 1997). 'The Big Bang Theory of Comic Book History'. Comic Book Marketplace. 2 (50). Coronado, California: Gemstone Publishing.
66. ^Ricca (2014), p. 129: 'What the boys did read were the magazines and papers where 'superman' was a common word. Its usage was almost always preceded by 'a.' Most times the word was used to refer to an athlete or a politician.'
67. ^Flagg, Francis (November 11, 1931). 'The Superman of Dr. Jukes'. Wonder Stories. Gernsback.
68. ^Jacobson, Howard (March 5, 2005). 'Up, Up and Oy Vey!'. The Times. UK. p. 5.: 'If Siegel and Shuster knew of Nietzsche's Ubermensch, they didn't say..'
69. ^'Comic with first Superman story sells for $1.5m'. The Independent. March 30, 2010. Archived from the original on April 2, 2010. Retrieved March 30, 2010.
70. ^Action ComicsArchived February 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine at the Grand Comics Database.
71. ^SupermanArchived February 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine (1939–1986 series) and Adventures of SupermanArchived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine (1987 continuation of series) at the Grand Comics Database.
72. ^'Superman'-titled comicsArchived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine at the Grand Comics Database.
73. ^Carol Tilley (March 1, 2016). 'Unbalanced Production: The Comics Business in the 1940s'. The Beat. Retrieved July 30, 2018.
74. ^Tye (2012), p. 163: 'It did work. In 1960, the first year in which sales data was made public, Superman was selling more comic books than any other title or character, and he stayed on top through much of the decade.
75. ^Comichron. Comic Book Sales By YearArchived July 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
76. ^'Thesp trio eyes 'Nurse'; 'Superman' may fly'. Variety.com. September 29, 1998.
77. ^Tye (2012), p. 245: 'Journalists, along with most of their readers and viewers, didn’t understand that heroes regularly perished in the comics and almost never stayed dead.'
78. ^'2018 Comic Book Sales to Comic Book Shops'. Comichron. Retrieved July 8, 2018.
79. ^Tye (2012), p. 294: 'The remaining audience [by 2011] was dedicated to the point of fanaticism, a trend that was self-reinforcing. No longer did casual readers pick up a comic at the drugstore or grocery, both because the books increasingly required an insider’s knowledge to follow the action and because they simply weren’t being sold anymore at markets, pharmacies, or even the few newsstands that were left. [..] Comic books had gone from being a cultural emblem to a countercultural refuge.'
80. ^Tye (2012), p. 212: 'So Jenette [Kahn] and her business-savvy sidekick, Paul Levitz, started viewing comics as creative engines rather than cash cows, able to spin off profitable enterprises in other media.'
81. ^Scivally (2007), p. 166: 'Whereas in the 1950s, the average comic book reader was 12 years old, by the 1990s, the average comic book reader was 20. A mere decade later, in 2001, the average age of comic book readers was 25.'
82. ^Gordon (2017), p. 164
83. ^Tumey, Paul (April 14, 2014). 'Reviews: Superman: The Golden Age Sundays 1943–1946'. The Comics Journal. Archived from the original on May 29, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2016. ..Jerry Siegel had his hands — and typewriter — full, turning out stories for the comic books and the daily newspaper strips (which had completely separate continuities from the Sundays).
84. ^Daniels (1998), p. 74
85. ^Cole, Neil A. (ed.). 'Wayne Boring (1905–1987)'. SupermanSuperSite.com. Archived from the original on October 8, 2016. Retrieved March 2, 2016.
86. ^Cole, Neil A. (ed.). 'Win Mortimer (1919–1998)'. SupermanSuperSite.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
87. ^Younis, Steven, ed. 'Superman Newspaper Strips'. SupermanHomepage.com. Archived from the original on March 26, 2015. Retrieved February 28, 2016.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
88. ^Tye (2012), p. 49: 'Initially Harry [Donenfeld], Jack [Liebowitz], and the managers they hired to oversee their growing editorial empire had let Jerry [Siegel] do as he wished with the character..'
89. ^Tye (2012), p. 41: 'Neither Harry [Donenfeld] nor Jack [Liebowitz] had planned for a separate Superman comic book, or for that to be ongoing. Having Superman's story play out across different venues presented a challenge for Jerry [Siegel] and the writers who came after him: Each installment needed to seem original yet part of a whole, stylistically and narratively. Their solution, at the beginning, was to wing it..'
90. ^Daniels (1998), p. 42: '..the publisher was anxious to avoid any repetition of the censorship problems associated with his early pulp magazines (such as the lurid Spicy Detective).'
91. ^Tye (2012), p. 49: 'Once Superman became big business, however, plots had to be sent to New York for vetting. Not only did editors tell Jerry to cut out the guns and knives and cut back on social crusading, they started calling the shots on minute details of script and drawing.'
92. ^Daniels (1998), p. 42: 'It was left to Ellsworth to impose tight editorial controls on Jerry Siegel. Henceforth, Superman would be forbidden to use his powers to kill anyone, even a villain.'
93. ^Tye (2012), p. 47: 'No hint of sex. No alienating parents or teachers. Evil geniuses like the Ultra-Humanite were too otherworldly to give kids nightmares.. The Prankster, the Toyman, the Puzzler, and J. Wilbur Wolngham, a W. C. Fields lookalike, used tricks and gags instead of a bow and arrows in their bids to conquer Superman. For editors wary of controversy, 1940s villains like those were a way to avoid the sharp edges of the real world.'
94. ^Tye (2012), p. 162: 'Before Mort came along, Superman’s world was ad hoc and seat-of-the-pants, with Jerry and other writers adding elements as they went along without any planning or anyone worrying whether it all hung together. That worked fine when all the books centered around Superman and all the writing was done by a small stable. Now the pool of writers had grown and there were eight different comic books with hundreds of Superman stories a year to worry about.'
95. ^Tye (2012), p. 173: 'But Weisinger’s innovations were taking a quiet toll on the story. Superman’s world had become so complicated that readers needed a map or even an encyclopedia to keep track of everyone and everything. (There would eventually be encyclopedias, two in fact, but the first did not appear until 1978.) All the plot complications were beguiling to devoted readers, who loved the challenge of keeping current, but to more casual fans they could be exhausting.'
96. ^Tye (2012), p. 165: 'Weisinger stories steered clear of the Vietnam War, the sexual revolution, the black power movement, and other issues that red the 1960s. There was none of what Mort would have called 'touchy-feely' either, much as readers might have liked to know how Clark felt about his split personality, or whether Superman and Lois engaged in the battles between the sexes that were a hallmark of the era. Mort wanted his comics to be a haven for young readers, and he knew his right-leaning politics wouldn’t sit well with his leftist writers and many of his Superman fans.'
97. ^Daniels (1998), p. 102: 'One of the ways the editor kept in touch with his young audience was through a letters colum, 'Metropolis Mailbag,' introduced in 1958.'
98. ^Tye (2012), p. 168: 'He admitted later he was losing touch with a new generation of kids and their notions about heroes and villains.'
99. ^Julius Schwartz, quoted in Daniels (1998): 'I said, 'I want to get rid of all the kryptonite. I want to get rid of all the robots that are used to get him out of situations. And I'm sick and tired of that stupid suit Clark Kent wears all the time. I want to give him more up-to-date clothes. And maybe the most important thing I want to do is take him out of the Daily Planet and put him into television.' I said 'Our readers are not that familiar with newspapers. Most of them get their news on television, and I think it's high time after all these years.'
100. ^Harvey (1996), p. 144: 'Artistic expressiveness of a highly individualistic sort had never been particularly welcomed by traditional comic book publishers. The corporate mind, ever focused on the bottom line of the balance sheet, favored bland 'house styles' of rendering..'
101. ^Eury (2006), p. 18: 'In 1948 Boring succeeded Shuster as the principal superman artist, his art style epitomizing the Man of Steel's comics and merchandising look throughout the 1950s.'
102. ^Daniels (1998), p. 74: '..Superman was drawn in a more detailed, realistic style of illustration. He also looked bigger and stronger. 'Until then Superman had always seemed squat,' Boring said. 'He was six heads high, a bit shorter than normal. I made him taller–nine heads high–but kept his massive chest.'
103. ^Curt Swan (1987). Drawing Superman. Essay reprinted in Eury (2006), pp. 58: 'For 30 years or so, from around 1955 until a couple of years ago when I more or less retired, I was the principal artists of the Superman comic for DC Comics.'
104. ^Wandtke (2012)
105. ^Hayde (2009)
106. ^Tye (2012), p. 88: '[Harry Donenfeld] drafted Maxwell into Superman, Inc., first to oversee the licensing of toys and other products, then to bring the superhero into the world of broadcast.'
107. ^Scivally (2007), p. 16: 'Superman was brought to radio by Allen Ducovny, a press agent with Detective Comics, and Robert Maxwell (the pen name of Robert Joffe), a former pulp fiction author who was in charge of licensing the subsidiary rights of the company's comic book characters.'
108. ^Pointer (2017): '..the budget for each short – an astonishing $30,000..'
109. ^Dave Fleischer, quoted in Daniels (1998), p. 58: 'The average short cost nine or ten thousand dollars, some ran up to fifteen; they varied.'
110. ^Tye (2012), p. 94: 'Max and Dave [Fleischer's] composers knew what Superman, Lois, and the others should look like, thanks to model sheets provided by Joe Shuster.'
111. ^Scivally (2007), p. 37: 'The challenges of the production had more than doubled its budget; the final cost was variously reported as anywhere from $250,000 to $325,000.'
112. ^Scivally (2007), p. 37: 'With all the hype, Superman quickly became the most profitable serial in film history.'
113. ^Scivally (2007), p. 49: 'According to Variety, the feature film and an additional twenty-four half-hour episodes were to come in for $400,000, or roughly $15,000 each.'
114. ^ ^abcScivally (2007)
115. ^'Superman Movies at the Box Office'. Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
116. ^Bob Chipman (2016). Really That Good: SUPERMAN (1978) (YouTube). Moviebob Central.
117. ^Scivally (2007), p. 90
118. ^Tye (2012), p. 197
119. ^Bernard Luber, quoted in Hayde (2009): 'The show wasn’t strictly for youngsters. We offered the dream of everyman - to fly, to be super.'
120. ^Scivally (2007), p. 52: '..Robert Maxwell hoped for an adult time slot, so he made Superman an adult show, with death scenes and rough violence.'
121. ^Jonathan Clements; Motoko Tamamuro (2003). The Dorama Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese TV Drama Since 1953. Stone Bridge Press. p. 200. ISBN9781880656815.
122. ^Beeler, Stan (2011). 'From Comic Book To Bildungsroman: Smallville, Narrative, And The Education Of A Young Hero'. In Geraghty, Lincoln (ed.). The Smallville Chronicles: Critical Essays on the Television Series. Scarecrow Press. ISBN9780810881303.
123. ^Jones (2004), p. 125
124. ^Ricca (2014), p. 150: 'It was then Donenfeld who not only now owned the property, but received the lion's share of the profits; whatever Jerry and Joe got was parsed out by him.'
125. ^Ricca (2014), p. 155: '[Harry Donenfeld] knew readers had become accustomed to Siegel and Shuster’s work, and he didn't want to risk upsetting a secret formula that he still didn't completely understand, especially when it was selling so well.'
126. ^Tye (2012), p. 119: 'In the ten years from 1938, when the first Action was published, to the filing of the suit in 1947, Jerry and Joe were paid [..] a total of $401,194.85. That was a king’s ransom—more than $5 million in today’s terms'
127. ^Exhibit Q (Docket 353-3) in Laura Siegel Larson v Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc., DC Comics, Case no. 13-56243 (Scans available from Dropbox and Scribd). Originally submitted as an exhibit in Jerome Siegel and Joseph Shuster vs. National Comics Publications Inc. et al. (New York Supreme Court 1947)
128. ^Jerry Siegel. The Life and Times of Jerry Siegel (unpublished memoir, written c.1946; Scans available at Dropbox and Scribd):
     'While I was in service, the majority of SUPERMAN's adventures were ghost-written by writers employed by DETECTIVE COMICS, Inc.
129. ^Jerry Siegel, in a 1975 interview with Phil Yeh for Cobblestone magazine. Quoted in Siegel and Shuster's Funnyman by Tom Andrae and Mel Gordon on page 49.:
     'While I was in the service they started ghosting the Superman scripts, because obviously I couldn't write them while I was away in the service.'
130. ^Ricca (2014), p. 223: 'Jerry felt angry and instantly very isolated: Harry had gone ahead and okayed the title without telling him—or paying for it?'
131. ^ ^abcdefSergi (2015)
132. ^Ricca (2014), p. 226: 'Jerry and Joe got a final check—and were promptly shown the door by National.'
133. ^Exhibit 2 (Docket 722-1) in Laura Siegel Larson vs Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc., DC Comics, case no 13-56243.
134. ^Sergi (2015), p. 214
135. ^Scott Niswander (July 22, 2015). Why Isn't SUPERMAN a PUBLIC DOMAIN Superhero?? (YouTube video). NerdSync Productions. Event occurs at 3:03~3:33. Archived from the original on November 22, 2016. Retrieved May 21, 2016.
136. ^The Marvel Family #89. Copyright date registered as 25 September 1953.
     See Catalog of Copyright Entries, Third Series, Volume 7, Part 2, Number 1: Periodicals, Jan-Jun 1953. United States Library of Congress. 1954. p. 268.
137. ^Thomas, Roy; Jerry Ordway (July 2001). 'Not Your Father's Captain Marvel! An Artist-by-Artist Account of a Doomed Quest for a 1980s Shazam! Series'. Alter Ego. Two Morrows Publishing. 3 (9): 9–17.
138. ^https://www.supermanhomepage.com/radio/radio.php?topic=r-radio
139. ^Superman comic strip, January 16, 1939Archived October 8, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, reprinted at 'Episode 1: Superman Comes to Earth'. TheSpeedingBullet.com. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
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Further reading

• De Haven, Tom (2009). Our Hero: Superman on Earth. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-11817-9. OCLC320132317.
• Ian Gordon, 2017, Superman: The Persistence of an American Icon, Rutgers University Press

External links

• Official website
• Golden Age, Silver Age and Modern Age Superman at the Comic book database
• Superman on DC Database, an external wiki, a DC Comicswiki
• Superman on IMDb